Law and Ethics: Ethics Associated with Energy Resources Development Operations Exemplified by Petroleum Development Operations in Nigeria

Energy resources may be described as different categories of fuels used by the humans for heating, generation of electrical energy and other forms of energy conversion processes. These resources are therefore the sources from which energy is derived, produced and supplied for the use of human beings and overall benefit of society. Energy resources are necessary for the day-to-day sustenance and survival of humans and society at large. Energy resources promote the functionality, viability and vitality of other sectors of a country’s economy. The ability of humans to harness energy resources is arguably the most important step in the history of human civilisation. The sources of global energy supply (energy resources) may be considered in two broad categories, namely non-renewable and renewable resources. Petroleum, a focal point of this study, is an example of fossil fuels. Petroleum resources are energy and major natural resources. These resources development operations are extractive industrial operations, which have tremendous negative effects on the environment and inhibit sustainable development. The adverse consequences of petroleum energy and major natural resources development operations affect the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region and other oil producing areas of Nigeria, as well as the entire Nigerian nation. In the perspective of this study, ethics may be considered as a wide and exploratory subject of discourse, which appears like an elephant that may be described from many standpoints. Obviously, there are certain ethics, ethical issues or ethical conducts (morally good practices) associated with energy and major natural resources development operations in particular and the entire life-cycle of these resources activities in general, which are designed to promote effective energy resource operations, towards affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy services to all societies and individuals around the globe. Law is a system of binding modes of conduct, which are formulated to govern behavioural patterns, namely the behaviour of individuals, groups and entities in society. The aim of this socio-legal study is to examine the role of law as a mechanism of social engineering, positive change and dynamic progress in society, towards providing access to energy services for all (overall public good), by 2030 (the target year proclaimed by the UN) regarding delivery of sustainable modern energy services to all. The study arrives at the finding that law remains a significant and inevitable tool for governing behavioural patterns; nevertheless, in developing countries suffering from energy poverty like Nigeria, law is unfortunately an unresolved necessity in respect of governing energy resources operations for the daily sustenance and survival of humans and society at large.


Introduction
Energy resources may be considered as all manner of fuels used by the humans for heating, generation of electrical energy and other forms of energy conversion processes. These resources are the sources from which energy is derived, produced and supplied for the use of human beings and overall benefit of society. 1 The overall public good, such as all-embracing wellbeing of people, are victims of bad political leadership and in effect bad governance in developing countries, exemplified by countries like Nigeria, which are suffering from energy poverty. 1 Whereas this is the case in developing countries, in the advanced countries, where political leaders endeavour to uphold the duties and obligations of government that are enshrined in the social contract of governance between government and the governed, 2 such leaders are selflessly working to deliver government social responsibility (GSR), 3 embedded in good governance (GG), 4 so as to cater for the security and wellbeing of their people, as well as all-embracing prosperity, advancement and SD of their countries. 5 The study would thus explore the nexus between energy poverty and bad governance. It would examine the connection between energy poverty and the multifaceted, multi-dimensional, versatile and all-encompassing negative consequences of bad governance on citizens, humanity at large and entire fabric of developing countries suffering from bad governance, such as Nigeria.
The study would also examine the link between natural law (associated with morality) and good laws. Consequently, given the qualitative nature of good laws and their relationship with morality, the study would make a case to promote natural law (and its school of thought), as opposed to the positive law theory (and its school of thought). The study would then establish the potential of natural law as the bedrock of virtue and GG and thus a veritable, necessary, crucial, strategic and inevitable tool in the march of countries and peoples around the world as well as the entire global community towards SD. 6 1 Ibid.  44-45, 55, 59-60, 64-65, 111-112, 155, 249 -250, 258, 289 and 292; The Preamble and Section 14 (2) (b) of the 1999 Constitution of the FRN (CFRN) (as amended); which provides that the security and welfare of the people are the primary purposes of government. Section 14 of the Constitution is captioned 'The Government and the People'. 3 //www.un.org/press/en/1997/19970728.SGSM6291.html> Accessed 27 April, 2020, where Seventh UN Secretary-General (1 January, 1997-31 December, 2006, Kofi Annan, proclaimed that 'good governance and sustainable development are indivisible'; E. T. Bristol-Alagbariya (2013 [n21]), xxxvii-xxxviii, 46-49 and 272-393. 5  called legal philosophy. 1 This subject-matter may, in other words, be associated with certain theories of law as well as their accompanying schools of thought (legal philosophy), namely the theory of natural law (and its school of thought), as opposed to the positive law theory (and its school of thought). 2 The natural law theory, which emphasises the divine origin of law and leadership as well as the moral content law, posits that law consists of a set of universal moral principles in accordance with nature. 3 This theory, which espouses the dynamic and effectual relationship between law and morality vis-à-vis the objective moral basis or order of good human actions, 4 postulates that moral principles, rules and standards should or ought to be characteristically embedded in laws governing human societies, such as sovereign states. 5 On the other hand, the positive law theory, which is essentially a reaction to the natural law school of thought, considers law as an obligatory mode of conduct made by human authority, 6 advocates that law is a collection of valid rules, commands or norms that may lack moral content. 7 The positive law theory argues that natural law theory exaggerates the relationship between law and morality presupposes that there is no need to use reason, morality, justice or fair-play to determine the nature and validity of law. It contends that law is the rule, directive or command of a sovereign or sovereign state, the breach of which attracts sanction. 8

Ethics Associated with Energy Resources Development Operations
It may be pertinent to discuss energy resources, before proceeding to give account of the ethics associated with energy resources development operations.

Energy Resources: Sources of Energy Supply
Energy resources may be described as all forms of fuel used by the humans for heating, generation of electrical energy and other forms of energy conversion processes. These resources are therefore the sources from which energy is derived, produced and supplied for the use of human beings and overall benefit of society. 9 They are necessary for the daily sustenance and survival of humans and society as a whole. 10 They are inevitable for the development, advancement and overall prosperity of the human race and society as a whole. 11 Energy resources enhance the functionality, viability and vitality of other sectors to the economy of a country. 12  significance of energy resources to humans and society at large cannot be overemphasised. Thus, the ability of humans to harness energy resources is arguably the most important step in the history of human civilisation. 1 The sources of global energy supply may be considered in two broad categories, namely non-renewable and renewable resources. 2 In between these two categories of energy resources, are solar (trapped/stored solar), wood and nuclear, 3 which may in certain cases or circumstances be considered as non-renewable and renewable energy resources. This study will however concentrate on non-renewable and renewable energy resources.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources
Non-renewable energy resources are those derived from sources that will run out or cannot be replenished in foreseeable future of human timescale or during the lifetime of many humans. 4 They take millions of years to form and their reserves are depleted faster than new ones are formed. Non-renewable category of energy resources are mainly fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Fossil Fuels as energy resources may simply be referred to as 'fossilized energy'. Fossil means the remains or impression of a prehistoric plant or animal embedded in rock and preserved in petrified form. Fossil fuels are the remains of plants and animals that were decomposed and buried deep in the Earth's crust millions of years ago. The theory is that fossil fuels are formed from the fossilised remains of dead plants and animals which remains were exposed to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. 5 Different types of fossil fuels are formed, depending on what combination of organic matter was present, how long it was buried and what temperature and pressure conditions existed as time passed during the period (of over millions of years). 6 Fossil fuels constitute most of global nonrenewable energy resources. 7 From the era of industrial revolution in Britain in the 18 th Century, up to the 2 nd half of the 20 th Century, fossil fuels were the major forms of the energy resources around the world. Britain led the world into industrialisation in the 18 th Century, when machines were powered by coal, following which electricity produced from burning coal, began to take over from manual labour. 8 Fossil fuels are valuable sources of energy resources, which have certain advantages, 9 even over renewable energy resources. They are relatively inexpensive to extract. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, are abundant such that they are relatively cheaper and readily available. 10 Also, very large amounts of electricity can be generated from fossil fuels. They can also be stored, piped, or shipped anywhere in the world. 11 Nevertheless, fossil fuels have enormous disadvantages, which make them unsustainable in the ongoing age of SD. 12 Fossil fuels are disadvantageous because they are not environmentally friendly and thus have enormous environmental costs, such as the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, which cause climate change and global warming, which occasion depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere and other adverse effects on aquatic and terrestrial environments and their respective ecosystems, 13 as well as public health. 1

Renewable Energy Resources
Renewable energy resource is an energy source that can regenerate and can replenish itself indefinitely. 2 It is a source of energy that is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. It is a source of energy that is naturally replenish-able or replenished on a human timescale. Renewable energy resource is a source of energy that is derived from natural processes and can regenerate itself indefinitely. Such resources are thus naturally replenish-able or constantly replenished on a human timescale. Renewable energy resources include the following five major ones; namely sun, wind, water (falling water or fast running water), biomass (bio energy) and geothermal energy resources. Renewable energy often provides energy in such forms as electricity generation, air and water heating as well as cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services. They are also sometimes referred to as alternative energy resources. 3 These alternatives are intended to address concerns about non-renewable energy resources such as fossil fuels. 4 There are several advantages of renewable energy resources. 5 These include the fact that they are spread over wide geographical localities of the globe. 6 This is in contrast with other energy sources that are concentrated in a limited number of countries, where the resources associated with them are extracted in rural and remote areas such as developing countries.
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human wellbeing. Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper, and thus could, for example, make hydrogen become cheaper than gas. Their share of total energy consumption is increasing. It is being projected that the consumption of coal and oil would decline in the near future, due to increased availability of renewable energy resources and natural gas. Renewable energy projects can also bring socio-economic benefits to areas where they are sited or located, away from cities, large urban centres and capital cities. These benefits may be from the increased access to socio-economic amenities, increased use of services in the locality as well as tourism potentials. Also, renewable energy resources have minimal negative impact(s) on the environment than nonrenewable energy resources like fossil fuels. Besides, in terms of relatively improved public health, generating electricity from renewable energy rather than fossil fuels offers significant public health benefits. However, health challenges, such as breathing problems, neurological damage, heart attacks and cancer, have been identified where air pollution and water pollution are occasioned through emissions from coal and natural gas plants. 7 Besides, in areas where existing electricity grid (distribution system) does not extend to, especially in <http://www.blueplanet.nsw.edu.au/ale--abiotic-characteristics-of-aquatic-and-terrestrial-environments/.aspx> Accessed 27 April, 2020. 1 Harvard Chan T. H. Chan School for Public Health, 'Costs and Health Co-Benefits for a U.S. Power Plant Carbon Standard' <https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/c-change/subtopics/fossil-fuels-health/>; Climate Nexus, 'The Localized Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels: From extraction to combustion, fossil fuel operations put human health at serious risk' <https://climatenexus.org/climate-issues/health/the-localized-health-impacts-of-fossilfuels/>; Union of Concerned Scientists, 'The Hidden Costs of Fossil Fuels: The true costs of coal, natural gas, and other fossil fuels aren't always obvious-but their impacts can be disastrous' <https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/hidden-costs-fossil-fuels> all Accessed 27 April, 2020; M. Jaccard areas inhabited by poor people, renewable energy features as their source of energy supply. 1 Renewable energy services also promote peace, security and GSR, in developing countries, such as those of Africa, where the domains of poor citizens and residents are not connected to existing electricity grid, as well as areas plagued by epileptic electricity (power) supply. 2 Conversely, there are certain disadvantages of renewable energy resources. One disadvantage of renewable energy is that it is difficult to generate. It is still difficult to generate large quantities of electricity through renewable energy resources than those being generated through traditional fossil fuels energy sources. This implies a need for development of more renewable energy facilities or a reduction of the rate of energy currently being used to support and sustain humans and society on a daily basis. Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the dependence of supply. Renewable energy often relies on the weather for its source of power. For instance, hydro generators need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water. Hydro power may need rain as well as water supply from a nearby river source(s). Accordingly, wind turbines need wind to turn their blades, while solar collectors need clear skies and sunshine to secure heat for purposes of electricity supply. When these resources are unavailable, it is impossible to derive energy resources, namely power, from the renewable energy resources, such as hydro and wind power resources. Essentially, reliance of renewable energy facilities on weather conditions to generate energy supply may be unpredictable and inconsistent. Besides, current renewable energy technology facilities are more expensive than traditional fossil fuel power generation schemes. Renewable energy schemes also involve new forms of technology that are relatively more expensive (capital cost) than those of traditional fossil fuel generation schemes. It has indeed been observed that about the biggest disadvantage of renewable energy is the relatively higher cost of their facilities or schemes than those of fossil fuels, which continue to prevent higher utility of clean energy resources, as compared to the nonrenewable resources of energy. Essentially, harnessing effective renewable energy such as electricity supply depends on cost and efficiency of the technology. 3 Generally, non-renewable energy and renewable energy resources have negative environmental consequences. 4 For instance, solar power has certain negative environmental impacts. The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power, such as land use and habitat loss, water use and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing purposes, may vary greatly, depending on the technology involved. For instance, there are two broad categories (photovoltaic [PV] solar cells or concentrating Solar Thermal Plants [CSP]), which have their distinct technical features and environmental impacts associated with them, regarding power generation. 5 Besides, wind power may cause global warming. The deployment of large scale wind power may occasion temperature rise. Also, the direct climate change impacts of wind power are instant, while the benefits of reduced emissions accumulate slowly. Therefore, in relation to fossil fuels, such as coal and gas, wind farms are prone to cause more negative environmental consequences than had been previously considered by many. 6 Furthermore, there are yet untapped renewable energy resources, 7 towards energy efficiency 8 and a sustainable future. 9 Consequently, a pragmatic solution to the problem of energy security 10 and energy efficiency around the world is for consumers to have a cost effective option, by balancing the degree of consumption of nonrenewable and renewable energy resources. Humans, as consumers of energy for our wellbeing and overall wellbeing of society, are also required to boost energy security and energy efficiency by promoting international benchmarked standards and practices of energy resources development operations and as well as ensuring proper, effective and non-destructive use of energy resources, by maximising the benefits being derived from 1 Y. Omorogbe and A. O. Ordor (eds) (n14), 20-21. 2 Ibid, 21. 3 D. D. Dears (n3); World Nuclear Association, 'Renewable Energy and Electricity' <https://www.worldnuclear.org/information-library/energy-and-the-environment/renewable-energy-and-electricity.aspx> Accessed 27 April, 2020; A. Mahmoud (n64). Power' <https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-solar-power> Accessed 27 April, 2020. 6 The Harvard Gazette, 'The down side to wind power: Wind farms will cause more environmental impact than previously thought' <https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2018/10/large-scale-wind-power-has-its-downside/> Accessed 27 April, 2020. 7 WCED (n2), [192][193][194][195][196][196][197][198][199][200] WCED (n2), 201-202. 10  these resources and thereby minimising the costs (burdens) involved. These require promoting and maintaining efficient life-cycle of energy resources operations. 1 In turn, these require reducing emphasis on non-renewable energy resources, while investing more in renewable and cleaner energy resources, to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy for all (belonging to the present generation) without compromising same for future generations. 2

Ethics Associated with Energy Resources Development towards Sustainable Energy Resources Development Operations
So far, the foregoing sub-headings have deliberated on certain key terms and aspects of this study. These are ethics, law and the relationship between law and ethics, as well as sources of energy supply, namely non-renewable energy resources and renewable energy resources, including the advantages and disadvantages of these two basic categories of energy resources. Energy resources are discussed in relation to the prevailing problem of energy security and energy efficiency, which are associated with access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy for all, aimed at achieving Goal 7 of the UNSDG, by 2030. 3 International benchmarked standards and practices of energy and major natural resources operations, including such standards and practices of energy resources development operations, underscore certain ethics, ethical issues or ethical conducts relating to these resources development operations, so as to promote SD.
Petroleum, a focal point of this study, is, as mentioned earlier, an example of fossil fuels. 4 Petroleum resources are energy and major natural resources. These resources development operations are extractive industrial operations (EIOs), which have several negative effects, ranging from ecological and generic environmental effects to health, socio-economic and other numerous negative consequences. Thus, for well over six decades, there have been adverse consequences of petroleum development operations in oil-rich communities of the ethnic minority Delta region. These adverse consequences also affect other oil producing areas of Nigeria and the entire Nigerian nation.
We may therefore proceed to give an overview of the problems associated with petroleum development operations in the entire Nigerian nation. Doing so, would provide a background to enable us outline and briefly discuss some of the ethics, ethical issues or morally good behaviours associated with energy resources development operations, using petroleum resources development operations in the country as examples. By and large, this overview will help showcase the significance of ethics in energy resources development operations, towards sustainable delivery of energy services to all, in the ongoing effort of the entire global community towards SD. 5

Overview of the Problems Associated with Petroleum Resources Development Operations in the Oil Producing Areas of Nigeria and the entire Nigerian Nation
We consider it pertinent to examine this sub-heading in two divisions, namely (a) the problems associated with petroleum development operations in the oil producing areas of Nigeria and (b) the problems relating to petroleum development operations in the entire Nigerian nation, while noting that sub-heading (a) is a part and parcel of sub-heading (b).

Problems Associated with Petroleum Resources Development Operations in the Oil Producing Areas of Nigeria
The problems and challenges associated with petroleum resources development operations in Nigeria may first be considered in the context of the oil producing areas of the country, beginning with the oil-rich Niger Delta region, where these resources development operations commenced well over six decades ago (from the late 1950s). These problems are essentially the costs, adverse consequences and paradoxes of petroleum resources development operations in the country's oil producing areas. 6 Petroleum development operations commenced in the oil-rich communities of the ethnic minority Delta region, sequel to commercial discovery of crude oil on Sunday, 15 January, 1956, at Otuabagi, in the British International Affairs and Global Strategy www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online) Vol.81, 2020 Colonial Oloibiri District of present-day Bayelsa State. In the context of the British Colonial District system in Nigeria, this discovery site was named the Oloibiri oilfield. The entire six Niger Delta (Southern ethnic minorities: South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria) States, namely Rivers, Delta, Bayelsa, Akwa-Ibom, Edo and Cross-River States, are Nigeria's oil producing States. 1 Few decades after the late 1950s, crude oil was also discovered in the communities of neighbouring states of the primordial Niger Delta region (otherwise called the ethnographic, geographic and historic ethnic minority Delta region of Nigeria). So far, further discoveries of crude oil had been made in the oil-rich communities of Abia and Imo States of the Igbo major ethnic group, and the oil-rich communities in Ondo State of the Yoruba major tribe.
Soon after the commencement of petroleum resources development operations in the oil producing communities of the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region, the resources development operations began to generate adverse consequences on the environment, people and communities of the region. There have been decades of costs (burdens), negative effects and paradoxes of petroleum energy and major natural resources EIOs in the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region of Nigeria, including other oil producing areas of the country.
We have already stated above that fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, are not environmentally friendly. Petroleum energy and major natural resources EIOs in Nigeria are occasioning enormous costs, negative consequences and paradoxes in the oil-rich communities of the Delta region, described as the 'fossil fuel capital' of Nigeria. 2 By and large, various costs, adverse effects and paradoxes of petroleum development operations in the Delta region and other oil-producing areas of Nigeria may be classified into environmental, socio-economic and political consequences. These adverse consequences include paradox of poverty and misery in the midst of plenty, lack of genuine engagement of the citizens and citizen-groups in the course of the resources development operations in their communal homelands. 3 Other costs, adverse effects, paradoxes and challenges include ineffective development project-level environmental assessment, namely environmental impact assessment (EIA), lack of life-cycle assessment of petroleum development projects and absence of institutionalised strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in Nigeria 4 as well as lack of just and equitable impact-benefits and impact-benefits agreements (IBAs). 5 There is generally lack of IBAs or other forms of Good 1 Section 1 (2)  Neighbour Agreements between oil companies and oil producing communities; rather, there is a regime of various forms of memorandum of understanding (MoU) between oil companies and oil producing communities, which are causing misunderstanding, confusion and crises in the communities. 1 There are also such adverse consequences of these resources development operations as negative health impacts, 2 human rights abuses and violations, 3 oil pollution, 4 degradation, devastation and despoliation of the environment, ecology and ecosystems, as well as deterioration of ecosystem services in the oil-rich Delta region 5 and other oil producing areas of Nigeria, 6 thereby undermining the general wellbeing of the oil-rich communities, citizens and future generations of the communities. Yet other costs, adverse effects and challenges are community crises, 7 which include violent conflicts aggravated by youth restiveness and insurgency, 8 as well as insecurity of lives and property 9 arising from the crises in the oil-rich communities of the ethnic minority oil-rich Delta region. 10 These paradoxes associated with unsustainable petroleum resources development operations in the Niger Delta region made the Delta region to become endangered and crises-ridden, justifying the region's historic 'resource control' International Affairs and Global Strategy www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online) Vol.81, 2020 movement, 1 which advocates that the region deserves maximum benefits from petroleum development operations in its oil-rich communities. Due to the fact that they are ethnic minorities, the people of the oil-rich Delta region are fundamentally being unfairly and inequitably treated 2 by the Federal Government (FG) and the oil producing companies, led by the multinational oil and gas companies (MNOCs), operating in Nigeria such that there are prevalence of very high costs, negative consequences and paradoxes of petroleum energy resources development operations in the region. 3 Hence, the Niger Delta region is poorer, more backward, politically and economically neglected, underdeveloped, 4 crises-ridden and highly an environmentally endangered region, perhaps, the most endangered Delta region in the world. 5 The state of the endangered oil-rich Niger Delta region became worse because of the absence of government social responsibility (GSR) 6 and lack of corporate social responsibility (CSR) measures, particularly social responsibility measures of MNOCs operating in the region. 7 In particular, burning fossil fuels in the Nigerian oil-rich Delta region in the course of petroleum development operations, by MNOCs, 8 such as by gas flaring, 9 as well as local (illegal) refining of crude oil, 10 are International Affairs and Global Strategy www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online) Vol.81, 2020 harmful to the environment, as same degrade, devastate and despoil the environment, ecosystems and ecosystem services in the region. Carbon is the main element in fossil fuels. 1 For this reason, the millions of years that it takes fossil fuels to be formed are called the carboniferous period. When burnt, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide, a key greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. 2 Greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun in the Earth's atmosphere, causing temperatures to rise (global warming). Global warming describes the current rise in the average temperature of Earth's air and oceans. Often, global warming is described as the most recent example of climate change. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). These gases are released during the combustion of fossil fuels to produce electricity. Carbon dioxide makes up the vast majority of greenhouse gas emissions from the sector of fossil fuels. Although water vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas, it is relatively nonharmful as other greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation (also called 'infrared light' or otherwise put, 'infrared rays' -kind of dangerous heat) from the sun and release same in all directions. Some of the heat so released and the heat from the sun penetrate the atmosphere. In the process, a measure of heat is reabsorbed by greenhouse gases to perpetuate the life cycle of these gases. The continuity of the life cycle of greenhouse gases means persistent presence of heat in the atmosphere. It is however natural and necessary to have some degree of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, without which ecosystem would be impossible. In fact, the natural and necessary degree of greenhouse gases, which balances the degree of carbon in the atmosphere, is essential for life on Earth. Thus, the problem is abnormal or increased emission of greenhouse gases. Among others, the negative effects of increased emission of greenhouse gases include the following: global warming and climate change, deforestation and forest degradation in tropical areas, ocean acidification, rise of sea levels, increased melting of snow and ice, smog pollution, ozone layer depletion and difficulty of plants to absorb sufficient nutrients and the consequent distortion of their normal growth rate. 3 The negative consequences of EIOs are more conspicuous in developing countries, where these operations take place in poor, rural and marginalised communities, such as those of the oil-rich Delta region of Nigeria. These negative consequences are even worse in resources-rich developing countries, like Nigeria, suffering from the resource curse. Generally, over and again, studies around the globe on Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) project, the World Bank Group (WBG) Extractive Industries Review (EIR) and other follow-up studies, processes and practical evidences are consistently proving that EIOs, such as oil and gas and other mineral resources industrial development operations, essentially inhibit SD. 1 In the event of EIOs in resourcesrich rural communities like those of the Niger Delta region, these communities are being unfairly and inequitably treated because they bear most of the costs (burdens) and adverse consequences of the operations and yet remain poor and marginalised. 2 In the oil-rich ethnic minority Niger Delta region, this situation has been so, to recall for the sake of emphasis, for over six decades of petroleum development operations. By and large, petroleum resources development operations fundamentally inhibit SD in the Niger Delta region.
However, researches and practical evidences are increasingly demonstrating that EIOs operations are advantageous when these operations are implemented well. That means, when extractive industrial projects are executed in a way that preserve the rights of members of the public who are adversely affected by these projects and when the benefits derived from these projects are well-utilised towards overall public good. In essence, if EIOs, such as petroleum resources development projects are properly governed in conformity with international benchmarked standards and practices, these can contribute to poverty reduction and SD. On this note, good environmental governance (GEG) measures, 3 such as efficient EA and environmental management systems, good oil-field standards and practices, 4 good corporate governance systems, such as good business ethics, as well as other SD-oriented measures and practices are capable of making EIOs contribute to SD. 5 .

Problems Related to Petroleum Resources Development Operations in Nigeria
We have already stated that the problems arising from petroleum resources development operations in the oil-rich Niger Delta and other oil producing areas of Nigeria are aspects of the problems associated with these resources development operations in the broader and wider Nigerian nation. Some of these problems and challenges of petroleum resources development are sub-optimal performance of the Nigerian national oil company (the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation [NNPC]), 6 apart from lack of technological and managerial prowess, Nigeria's status of rentier economy (rentier state), resource curse and underdeveloped economy. 7 There are also the problems of energy security (including insecurity of supply to Nigeria's consumer nations and their numerous consumer-public) and energy efficiency, generating the resultant problems of energy poverty, 1 particularly poverty of petroleum energy resources (petroleum energy poverty). Yet other problems are generic poverty 2 plaguing Nigerian citizens in the midst of plenty and general insecurity of lives and property in the country. Above all, is the perennial problem of corruption, 3 particularly corrupt political leadership and its all-embracing problem of bad governance. 4 Considering that there is so much information in the public domain on these problems and challenges militating against sustainable petroleum resources development operations, this study will not discuss these problems and challenges further.
However, suffice it to mention that the problem of lack of technological and managerial prowess of Nigeria essentially contributes to the country's status in the development and operation of its petroleum industry and in turn its continued existence as a rentier state, with its petroleum-based industrial economy continuously existing as a rentier economy. 5 The enormous wealth accruing from petroleum (oil and gas) development operations has been the mainstay 6 of Nigeria's political economy for several decades. However, due to Nigeria's selfish and self-serving political leadership, 7 this enormous wealth is being mismanaged, misappropriated and primitively accumulated by the political leaders of the country. 8 Accordingly, it is due to the problem of corrupt political leadership and its associated perennial problem of bad governance, that there is abysmal poverty, destitution, as well as insecurity of lives and property in the country. 9 Moreover, it is crystal clear that fighting institutionalised corruption, entrenched in bad governance, in Nigeria is not only risky but also dangerous. 10 Bad governance, which is increasingly occasioning doubt and mistrust between the institution of government and the citizenry (the governed) 11 and driving Nigeria to a failing or a failed state, is the principal reason why petroleum and other energy and major natural resource development operations in the country are inefficient and/or ineffective, as these operations fall short of international benchmarked standards and practices of energy resources EIOs, which standards and practices are designed to make these operations contribute to SD. 12 Consequently, while examining the core problem of Nigeria, the country's erudite scholar and prolific writer, who is described as 'a moral voice in the anthills of decadence', Chinua Achebe, proclaimed that 'the trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership.' 1 So far, Nigerian political leaders are yet to challenge this proclamation of Achebe's by delivering GG in the overall interest of Nigeria, its component ethnic nationalities, citizens and residents.

Ethics Associated with Energy Resources Development Operations, including Petroleum Development Operations in Nigeria
The ethics, ethical issues or morally good behaviours associated with energy resources operations in general and energy resources development operations in particular are designed to ensure sustainability of these operations, such that they would contribute to SD. SD may be described and defined in certain relative ways. The WCED gives a classic definition of SD, which we hereby wish to adopt. The Commission defines SD as the development which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. 2 We wish to reinforce the classic definition of SD with the proposal and proclamation of the Earth Charter Initiative (ECI), which espouses the values and principles for building a more just, sustainable and peaceful world, highlights that SD expands our vision towards ethical or greater ethical principles and practices. 3 This Charter is an international declaration of fundamental values and principles, having its constituent global movement of organisations and individuals that embrace the declaration for building vision, attitude, knowledge, wisdom, skills and values needed to achieve a more just, sustainable and peaceful global society. 4 Given that it is designed to regulate the intertwined and interwoven relationship of the environment to development, SD involves promoting and/or ensuring sustainable human progress, prosperity and survival in the course of development, without endangering the environment and bankrupting the resources of future generations. Therefore, the main recommendation of the WCED, which is considered as the solution to the compelling demand for environmental protection in the course of economic development, is a new approach, namely SD. To achieve SD, sovereign states (countries), government, business, individuals, civil society organisations and all other sectors of society are required to put the environment first, so that development may last. 5 On this note, the WCED, which urges the entire countries, groups and peoples of the global community to seriously and conscientiously promote the intertwined and interwoven relationship of the environment to development, recommends that in the final analysis SD must rest on political will. 6 By virtue of this recommendation, the Commission puts onus of primarily achieving SD on sovereign states (countries and nations) of the world. The publication of the WCED, entitled Our Common Future (the future of the entire global community on Planet Earth), which was published in 1987, may be considered as a general notice to the entire community of countries and peoples of the globe that time is rife for them to vigorously work towards promoting and actualising marriage of the economy and efficient environmental protection, through conservation, preservation of ecology, ecosystems and ecosystem services, as a means to promote, support and sustain the carrying capacity of the Earth, towards the wellbeing and survival of the present and future humanity. 1 The ethics associated with energy resources development operations, including petroleum development operations in Nigeria arise from the costs, negative consequences and paradoxes of petroleum energy resources development operations in the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region and other oil producing areas of Nigeria. We have already taken an overview of the decades of costs, negative consequences and paradoxes of petroleum energy resources development operations in the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region of Nigeria, including other oil producing areas of the country. By and large, the ethics of energy resources development operations are thus related to the costs, paradoxes and negative consequences of these operations on SD.
Considering that these ethics, ethical issues and aspects of access to and use of energy resources development operations are many, they may, from the background, profession-leaning and perspectives of different scholars, be phrased differently and considered as holistic, inter-related or even open-ended, as their scope covers the life-cycle of energy and major natural resources extractive industrial operations (EIOs). Nevertheless, some of these ethics may be outlined as they are listed here-under: 2 (i) Ethics associated with energy and major natural resources EIOs; (ii) Ethics associated with Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Wealth and Resources (PSNWR), regarding energy and major natural resources development; (iii) Ethical nature of the growing recognition of the stakeholder approach to business, with regard to energy and major natural resources development operations; (iv) Ethics in relation to Government Social Responsibility (GSR), Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Social Responsibility of affected civil society groups in energy and major natural resources development operations; (v) Ethics associated with technology and innovation, particularly new and cleaner technologies; (vii) Ethics associated with good oilfield standards and practices in petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (viii) Ethics associated with Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) in petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (ix) Ethics associated with greenhouse gas emission in the course of petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (x)Ethics in relation to the UN Global Compact, in the course of petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (xi) Ethics associated with geopolitical risks in the course of petroleum energy and other energy and mineral resources development operations; (xii) Ethics associated with environmental assessment (EA) in the process of petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (xiii) Ethics in relation to policy failures in developing countries regarding petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (xiv) Ethics associated with decommissioning and abandonment of petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (xv) Ethics associated with energy, petroleum and other major natural resources development operations towards peace, security and GG; (xvi) Ethics associated with conservation, in the process of petroleum and other energy and major natural resources development operations; (xvii) Ethic associated with sustainable development (a vast, versatile, multidimensional and all-encompassing ethical feature); and (xviii) Ethics associated with affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy services towards overall public good.

Ethics Associated with Extractive Industrial Operations and Pertinent Remarks on Ethics
So far, we have given an outline of the ethics associated with energy resources development operations, including petroleum development operations in Nigeria. We are proceeding to briefly discuss ethics associated with EIOs, as an example, and to make certain pertinent remarks.
One crucial ethical conduct, which is associated with energy and major natural resources, is regarding EIOs, listed as item (i) of our preceding sub-heading. As indicated earlier-on, EIOs have tremendous negative effects on the environment, occasion poverty and fundamentally inhibit SD. However, landmark studies, International Affairs and Global Strategy www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online) Vol.81, 2020 112 corroborated by real-life evidences indicate that EIOs are advantageous when these operations are implemented well; that means, in a way that preserves the rights of people who are directly affected by extractive industrial projects, and when the benefits derived from these projects are well-utilised for overall public good. Thus, EIOs can contribute to environmental protection, poverty reduction and shared prosperity, and thereby promote SD. The ethics-in-action or morally good practice required in this context is for the owners and managers of EIOs to comply with international benchmarked standards and practices governing these operations, so as to ensure that they contribute to poverty reduction and SD. In this regard, GEG measures, such as efficient EA, environmental management systems, good oil-field standards and practices, good corporate governance systems, such as good business ethics, as well as other SD-oriented measures and practices, should be observed, to make EIOs contribute to poverty reduction and SD in resources-rich developing countries like Nigeria.
May we therefore remark by reiterating that various forms of ethics and ethical conducts associated with energy resources operations are aimed at sensitising and spurring those engaged in these operations to make the operations contribute to SD. These operations are in effect required to be embarked upon in ways that foster and enhance the achievement of Goal 7 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs), captioned affordable and clean energy, which Goal is designed to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy for all, by the year 2030. 1

Ethics towards Sustainable Development of Energy Resources Development Operations and the Role of Law
So far, we have given an outline of the ethics (ethical issues and ethical behaviours) associated with energy and major natural resources development operations and particularly discussed the ethics associated with EIOs. These ethical behaviours are designed to promote effective energy resources services, towards sustainable and efficient delivery of energy services to all societies and individuals around the globe.
Over and again, it has been mentioned that various manner of ethics and ethical conducts associated with energy resources operations, especially these resources development operations, are aimed at sensitising and spurning those engaged in these operations to make the operations contribute to SD. To do so, these operations are required to be embarked upon in ways that would achieve Goal 7 of the UNSDGs, captioned 'affordable and clean energy', which is designed to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy for all, otherwise described as 'sustainable energy for all' (SEforALL). SEforALL is an international multistakeholder organisation promoting the need for energy efficiency and to increase the use of renewable energy resources, towards overall public good. 2 However, to achieve the goals of SEforALL requires a radical rethink of the way the humankind in countries around the world produce, distribute and consume energy. 3 The role of law in the context of this study is that it regulates energy resource activities. Law regulates energy and major natural resources development operations, such as petroleum resources development operations. For instance, law serves as the key instrument required for operations of energy and major natural resources regulatory institutions, as well as the operations of energy and major natural resources service providers. 4 In effect, law governs various conducts of humans and society at large, so as to engender improved access to energy resources, towards affordable and clean energy for the survival and sustenance of all individuals. 5 Law is an inevitable apparatus of social engineering, positive change and dynamic progress that governs conducts in countries around the globe, so as to enable them provide access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy for all. Law is a veritable instrument of sustainable energy for all (SEforALL). 6 Therefore, laws and legal instruments, especially those having moral features, serve the strategic role of governing energy resources operations to stimulate access to affordable, reliable and sustainable modern energy services for all individuals, including poor people residing in rural areas of developing countries, 7 by 1 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 'Sustainable Development Goals' <https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html> Accessed 27 April, 2020. 2 Homepage of SEforALL (n14). 3 SEforALL, 'About us' <https://www.seforall.org/about-us> Accessed 7 February, 2020. 2030. This is the target year agreed upon and proclaimed by the UN, regarding delivery of sustainable and efficient modern energy services to all societies and individuals around the globe. 1 Regardless of the foregoing, ironically, law is still an unresolved mechanism of social engineering, positive change and dynamic progress in developing countries like Nigeria, which are plagued by the disease called 'energy poverty'. 2

Conclusion
In the context of the framework of this study, ethics may be considered as a wide and exploratory subject-matter of discourse, which appears like an elephant that may be described from many standpoints. Nevertheless, the study outlines certain ethics (also referred to as ethical issues, ethical behaviours (ethics-inaction: morally good practices) associated with energy and major natural resources development operations exemplified by petroleum development operations in Nigeria. The study also analyses the relationship between law and ethics. It discusses ethics as morals, namely morally good behaviours and practices, in relation to energy resources development operations in an open-ended manner.
The study also examines the relationship between law and morality and hence ethics, by exploring the domain of jurisprudence. It does so by examining the theory of natural law (and its school of thought), as opposed to the positive law theory (and its school of thought). It deliberates on the theory of natural law, which underscores the divine origin of law and leadership as well as the moral content law, so as to establish as well as demonstrate the effectual and dynamic relationship between law and morality. The theory of natural law school of thought argues that moral principles, rules and standards should or ought to be embedded in laws governing human societies, such as sovereign states. The theory of natural law underpins the moral foundation of laws, particularly the moral footprint of good laws. Conversely, the positive law theory presupposes that law is simply the rule, directive or command of a sovereign or sovereign state, the breach of which attracts sanction. As such, legal positivism argues that there is no need to use reason, morality, justice or fair-play to determine the nature and validity of law.
The moral content or feature of law espoused in the theory of natural law serves as a foundational outlay, background or platform for examining ethics relating to energy resources development operations in particular and the entire life-cycle of these resources activities, which are designed to promote effective energy resource operations, towards sustainable and efficient delivery of energy services to all societies and individuals around the globe.
Energy resources may be viewed as different categories of fuels used by humans for heating, generation of electrical energy and other forms of energy conversion processes. These resources are thus the sources from which energy is derived, produced and supplied for the use of human beings and overall benefit of society. The significance of energy resources to humans and society at large cannot be overemphasised, as these resources help to nourish and sustain life. Energy resources are necessary for the day-to-day sustenance and survival of humans and society at large. They are crucial and inevitable to the development, advancement and overall prosperity of the human race and society as a whole. Energy resources enhance the functionality, viability and vitality of other sectors to the economy of a country. The ability of humans to harness energy resources is arguably the most important step in the history of human civilisation.
The sources of global energy supply (energy resources) may be considered in two broad categories, namely non-renewable and renewable resources. Petroleum, a focal point of this study, is an example of fossil fuels, which constitutes most of the world's non-renewable energy resources.
From the period of the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the 18 th Century, to the 2 nd half of the 20 th Century, fossil fuels were the dominant forms of the world's energy resources. Great Britain led the world into industrialisation in the 18 th Century, when machines were powered by coal, following which electricity produced from burning coal, began to take over from manual labour. From the trend of consumption of energy resources and these resources-related services, some consider that petroleum resources, which are non-renewable fossil fuels' category of energy resources, would continue to be the major sources of the world's energy resources in the ongoing 21 st Century.
Using petroleum development operations in Nigeria as examples of energy resources development operations, the study examines the role of law as an instrument of social engineering, positive change and dynamic progress in society, to engender access to energy services for all societies and individuals around the globe, by 2030 (the target year proclaimed by the UN) regarding delivery of sustainable and efficient modern energy services to all. With the aid of socio-legal methodology, the study explores the nexus between energy poverty and bad governance prevailing in developing countries like Nigeria. It examines the connection between energy poverty and the multifaceted, multi-dimensional, versatile and all-encompassing negative consequences of bad governance on citizens, humanity at large and entire fabric of developing countries suffering from bad governance, like Nigeria. The study also examines the link between natural law (associated with morality), and good laws. Consequently, given the qualitative nature of good laws and their connection with morality; that means, how good laws have moral foundations, the study makes a case for the promotion of natural law (and its school of thought), as opposed to the positive law theory (and its school of thought). Clearly, natural law underpins the moral foundation of laws, particularly the moral footprint of good laws. Thus, based on the effectual and dynamic relationship between law and morality, the study promotes and justifies the existence and good potentials of natural law. In this way, the study underscores and highlights the significance of natural law as the bedrock of virtue and GG and thus a veritable, strategic and inevitable tool in the march of countries and peoples around the world as well as the entire global community, pioneered and ably being spearheaded by the UN, towards SD.
Petroleum resources are energy and major natural resources. These resources development operations are extractive industrial operations (EIOs), which have colossal negative effects on the environment and inhibit SD. The horrifying adverse consequences of petroleum resources development operations affect the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region and other oil producing areas of Nigeria, as well as the entire Nigerian nation. The problems, costs (burdens), adverse consequences, challenges and paradoxes of petroleum resources development operations in the oil-rich ethnic minority Niger Delta region started after the commencement of these resources development operations in the oil producing communities of the region in the second half of the 1950s. The six States of the Delta region (Southern ethnic minorities: South-South geopolitical region of Nigeria), namely Rivers, Delta, Bayelsa, Akwa-Ibom, Edo and Cross-River States, are oil producing States of the country. These States, particularly Rivers, Delta, Bayelsa and Akwa-Ibom States are Nigeria's major oil-rich States.
There have therefore been well over six decades of costs (burdens), negative effects, challenges and paradoxes of petroleum resources EIOs in the oil-rich Delta region of Nigeria, including other oil producing areas of the country, such as Abia, Imo and Ondo States, in which areas the resources development operations commenced a few decades after the 1950s.
Various adverse effects of petroleum development operations in the Delta region and other oilproducing areas of Nigeria may be classified into environmental, socio-economic and political consequences. These adverse effects include paradox of poverty and misery in the midst of plenty, lack of genuine engagement of the citizens and citizen-groups in the course of the resources development operations in their communal homelands, ineffective development project-level environmental assessment, namely EIA, lack of life-cycle assessment of petroleum development projects and absence of institutionalised strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in Nigeria as well as lack of just and equitable impact-benefits and impact-benefits agreements (IBAs). There is generally lack of IBAs or other forms of Good Neighbour Agreements between oil companies and oil producing communities; rather, there is a regime of various forms of MoU between oil companies and oil producing communities, which are causing misunderstanding, confusion and crises in the communities. There are also other adverse effects of these development operations as negative health impacts, human rights abuses and violations, oil pollution, degradation, devastation and despoliation of the environment, ecology and ecosystems, as well as deterioration of ecosystem services in the oil-rich Delta region and other oil producing areas of Nigeria, thereby undermining the general wellbeing of the oil-rich communities, citizens and future generations of the communities. Yet other adverse consequences are community crises, which include violent conflicts aggravated by youth restiveness and insurgency, as well as insecurity of lives and property arising from the crises in the oil-rich communities of the ethnic minority oil-rich Delta region. These effects associated with unsustainable petroleum resources development operations in the Niger Delta region made the region to become endangered and crises-ridden and justified the region's historic 'resource control' movement, which advocates that the region deserves to have maximum benefits from petroleum development operations in its oil-rich communities. Due to the fact that they are ethnic minorities, the people of the oil-rich Delta region are fundamentally being unfairly and inequitably treated by the FG and the oil producing companies, led by the MNOCs, operating in Nigeria such that there are prevalence of very high costs, negative consequences and paradoxes of petroleum energy resources development operations in the region. Hence, the Niger Delta region is deplorably poorer, more backward, politically and economically neglected and underdeveloped as well as crisesridden and an environmentally endangered region, perhaps, the most endangered Delta region in the world, which is greatly being threatened by greenhouse gas emissions occasioning climate change and global warming in the region. The state of the endangered oil-rich Niger Delta region became worse because of the absence of government social responsibility (GSR) and lack of corporate social responsibility (CSR) measures, particularly social responsibility measures of MNOCs operating in the region.
The problems and challenges arising from petroleum resources development operations in the broader and wider Nigerian nation include the sub-optimal performance of the Nigerian national oil company (the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation [NNPC]), lack of technological and managerial prowess, Nigeria's International Affairs and Global Strategy www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online) Vol.81, 2020 status of rentier economy (rentier state), resource curse and underdeveloped economy. Others are the problems of energy security (including insecurity of supply to Nigeria's consumer nations and their numerous consumerpublic) and energy efficiency, generating the resultant problems of energy poverty, particularly poverty of petroleum energy resources (petroleum energy poverty). Yet other problems are generic poverty plaguing Nigerian citizens in the midst of plenty and general insecurity of lives and property in the country. Above all, is the fundamental problem of corruption, particularly corrupt political leadership and its associated hydra-headed problem of bad governance. The study thus adopts the finding of Nigeria's erudite scholar and prolific writer, Chinua Achebe, that the failure of political leadership (bad governance) is the main problem of Nigeria.
Besides, in order to examine the role of law, the study defines law by stating that it is a system of binding modes of conduct, which are formulated to govern behavioural patterns, namely those of individuals, groups and entities in society. The study thus indicates that the role of law is to showcase the significance and essence of law in terms of regulating energy resource activities, so as to promote and actualise access to sustainable and efficient modern energy to all societies and individuals around the globe.
Certainly, law is a mechanism of social engineering, positive change and dynamic progress in society, which serves the strategic role of governing energy resources operations to stimulate realisation of the dream of the entire global community to ensure effective energy resource operations, towards providing efficient and sustainable delivery of energy services to all societies and individuals, including poor people residing in rural areas of developing countries, by 2030. This is the target year agreed upon and proclaimed by the UN, regarding delivery of sustainable and efficient modern energy services to all around the globe.
Also, the study gives account of a fundamental ethical conduct associated with energy and major natural resources development operational activities, which stipulates how petroleum and other EIOs, which have negative effects on the environment and inhibit SD, should be managed in a way to contribute to poverty reduction and SD. To do so, EIOs are required to be managed in a way that complies with international benchmarked standards and practices governing these operations. On this note, good environmental governance measures, such as efficient EA and environmental management systems, good oil-field standards and practices, good mining and overall good corporate governance systems, such as good business ethical practices, as well as other SD-oriented measures, processes and practices should be observed to make EIOs contribute to poverty reduction, shared prosperity and environmentally-sound and socio-economically equitable SD in resources-rich developing countries like Nigeria.
Law as an apparatus of social engineering and positive change in society, which serves the strategic role of governing EIOs, is able to proscribe EIOs regulatory measures to make these operations contribute to poverty reduction and environmentally-sound and socio-economically equitable SD.
Law is certainly able to prescribe appropriate regulatory measures to engender actualisation of the aspiration of the global community, led by the UN, of achieving access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy for all, stipulated in Goal 7 of the UNSDGs. This Goal is captioned 'affordable and clean energy', and being propagated by an international multistakeholder organisation (Sustainable Energy for All [SEforALL]), to promote energy efficiency and increase the use of renewable energy resources. Law is certainly an instrument of social engineering and positive change in society, which serves the strategic and inevitable role of governing energy resources operations, to stimulate realisation of the dream of the entire global community, by expediting effective energy resource operations, towards providing efficient and sustainable delivery of modern energy services to all societies and individuals, including poor people residing in rural areas of developing countries, by the target year (2030).
However, although law is significant and inevitable in terms of governing behavioural patterns in society, it still remains an unresolved necessity in developing countries, which are suffering from the disease called energy poverty. This is so because energy poverty-afflicted developing countries like Nigeria are yet unable to fully and gainfully utilise law or are reluctant to do so, to address their problems and challenges associated with effective and sustainable energy resource operations, towards efficient delivery of energy services for overall public good. In other words, law is not still being utilised in developing countries which are suffering from energy poverty to boost efficient delivery of energy services for generic public good. It is in this kind of situation that law may be looked at as a victim of bad governance in developing countries. Moreover, law and public good, especially anything associated with overall public good, such as all-embracing wellbeing of people, are victims of bad political leadership and, in effect, bad governance in developing countries, exemplified by developing countries like Nigeria suffering from the disease called energy poverty.
It is therefore the finding of this study that energy poverty in developing countries like Nigeria exists due to bad governance. The study arrives at the finding that Nigeria is afflicted by energy poverty, especially petroleum energy poverty, due to prevailing bad governance in the country. By and large, bad governance has multifaceted, multi-dimensional, versatile and all-encompassing negative effects on the citizenry, humanity and entire fabric of developing countries plagued by it. The study also arrives at the finding that law remains a International Affairs and Global Strategy www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-574X (Paper) ISSN 2224-8951 (Online) Vol.81, 2020 116 significant, inevitable but ironically an unresolved necessity, especially in developing countries suffering from energy poverty, required to effectively govern energy resources operations towards overall public good.
It is also the finding of this study that law rooted in morality is a significant, inevitable and compelling instrument of GG and SD in society. Accordingly, it is the finding of this study that natural law is the bedrock of virtue, GG and SD. To this end, the essence of good laws entrenched in morality, underscores the effectual and dynamic relationship between law and morality. This study thus promotes and justifies the existence, essence and prevalence of natural law (and its school of thought), as opposed to the positive law theory (and its school of thought).
Consequently, the study recommends that law as an instrument of social engineering and positive change in society, should be fully and gainfully explored and accordingly utilised in developing countries, especially countries suffering from energy poverty. This should be done to efficiently regulate energy resources operations, so as to stimulate realisation of the dream of the entire global community to provide access to energy services for all individuals, including poor people, who are resident in rural areas of developing countries, by 2030.
As a short-term measure, we recommend a pragmatic cost effective approach to and relationship between the efficacy of available non-renewable and renewable energy resources. This measure is to maximise the benefits and minimise the costs associated with utilising ongoing predominant fossil fuels energy resources, as a means towards a rosy long-term potential effective, efficient and sustainable access to renewable energy resources, towards the day-to-day sustenance and survival of humans and society as a whole.
Finally, we recommend that developing countries should readily, fully and gainfully utilise any energy related law or legal instrument associated with or ingrained in morality, that means, having morally good or correct footprint(s), as a veritable mechanism to aid effective and sustainable energy resources operations, towards guaranteeing access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy services to all and for overall public good, and thereby catalyse the achievement of SD in these countries.