Andragogy: Process and Context Based (PCB) Model for Adult Learners

The literature reports that andragogy is methods of teaching for adult learning that basically differs from pedagogy in terms of learning, focus, power and control, learning, learning design, development. The andragogical models focus on the process rather than content, and the process concerns with how the procedures and resources help the learners. However, they have focused less on the role of environment (context) in the implementation of the models where the context includes several factors such as enabling, empowering and engaging. This paper has described a blended model that might be implied in higher education institutions. The proposed model called Process and Context based (PCB) model for adult learners, includes both process and context. Experience, action and reflections are the primary elements of the process whereas enabling, engaging and empowering are the components of a conducive environment for a learning organization.

questions while preparing model of the learners. The third considerable element is techniques. There are many more technical aspects such as program development, catering of adult skills, managing group work and so on. Adult educator should technically sound and proficient in designing and operating the adult education framework. The final element is strategy that is setting strategy. There is necessary to make plan to achieve the short-term and long-term goals. The goals guide the educators to implement the programs to meet the standards keeping on track of adult education (Foley, 2004). Schon's (1983) Reflective Model. This model of adult learning emphasizes on the reflective mode of program designing. The process of model design proceeds towards the order of plan, action and reflection, and then, new plan in cycle or spiral path. In this model, an educator can prepare a plan for adult learners with considering what to teach, how to teach, why to teach and how to assess the outcomes. Then, he/she goes in action or implement the plan for facilitating/teaching the learners. During the implementation stage, there will be the act of 'reflection-inaction' in which educator use their experience in the action or reflect on their experience gained in earlier days. Then, next stage is 'reflection-on-action' which is tested by hypothetico-deductive system that comes true for positivist paradigm (p. 33).
As stated in Schon's (1983), during the course of problem solving, there are complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness, and value-conflict where knowing-in-action is important. Moreover, this model also suggests to think about doing something while doing it in the midst of a performance. There a learner can improvise his act or action to solve the problems or while engaging in a planned action combining, and recombining a set of figures within the schema. This practice helps a learner to understand a theory in practice and to develop higher order of learning.

Boud, Keogh & Walke's (2005) Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning.
Likely to Schon's (1983) model, Boud, Keogh & Walke's (2005 'Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning' (p. 7) is a matter for adult learner. The adult learners have long experience but it does not mean that the experience is sufficient to learning new thing. In their words, they are half digested in work experience, and may not be appropriate for academically oriented learning. They raised the following questions that are relevant while someone turns experience into practice: What is it that turns experience into learning? What specifically enables learners to gain the maximum benefit from the situations they find themselves in? How can they apply their experiences in new contexts? Why can some learners appear to benefit more than others? They suggest that adults' experience is to be considered while designing learning program. The experience is applicable in learning activities, for example, the project work, practical work, on-the-job training, field study, internships, clinical training, pastoral work, educational gaming and simulation and other forms of experiential learning.
Kolb's (2015) Experiential Learning Cycle. Kolb (2015) state different experiential learning model that are recommended for higher education. This experience-based education is popular methods in higher level of education, and has become the method of choice for non-traditional learners, for example, minorities, the poor, and mature adults (p. 3). John Dewey, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget were the well-known scholars who contributed to experiential learning theory and highlighted Kolb's research on this method of learning.
In K. Lewin's (1951) experiential learning theory, it is described that learning is supposed to be the life-long learning process that critically bridges among work, education and personal development. This method helps learners for deep learning which means to connect the classroom to real world. In his experiential learning process, four functions are highlighted, and they are experience, reflection, generalization and application. In the continuum of this theory, Dewey's ideas on 'Experiential Learning', learning is very much similar to Lewin's theory. It defined as a dialectical process that integrates experience, observation and action, and finally, the consequences should be linked to the learners' desire and impulses to acquire moving force (Kolb, 2015, p. 33). Kolb (2015) summarized that experiential learning is viewed as a dialectical process between action and reflection, and experience and abstraction. The updated model of experiential learning is presented in figure 1.   Kolb's (2015) 'The Experiential Learning Cycle' As presented in figure 1, it is recursive process in which there is objective or concrete experience that is the basis for evaluative/reflective observation. From reflective observation, someone reaches the level of generalization of those reflection. The end of cycle is the application level of the generalized ideas or learning which avenues to transform the experience in higher level of new learning.

Learning Context for Adult Learners
Learning environment is a highly instrumental factor for learning. Kausar, Kiyani, & Suleman (2017) revealed that classroom environment such as well-managed and vibrant classroom environment had a positive effect on the academic achievement of students in school level education. Nuhu (2015) also investigated that school building, class with adequate furniture, class with small class population and the use of instructional materials had positive impact on the performance of students in Junior Secondary schools. Similarly, in virtual class situation, Barker and Gossman's (2013) study showed that use of virtual learning environment (VLE) improved the students' learning and it motivated them to learn. They suggested to give attention in promoting the use of VLE to enhance learning. Alves, Miranda and Morais (2017) state that online students have different approaches such as uses of the VLE, click to learn, read a file, take notes, print or save in the computer for further offline use. They conclude from their study on the students of a public higher education institution that showed relatively positive indicators regarding students' access to a virtual learning environment and the relation between such access and their performance. From the study of a few number of empirical researches on the impact of learning environment on students' performance, they are true for justifying positive relation between these two variables: learning environment and performance. Even more, the results are true for both online and F2F learning, and youth and adult learning contexts.
As stated by Foley (2004) in chapter 1, adult educators have to think about the learners that when the learners do things, they are engaged in practice; then they think about their practice, finally they reflect and theorize it. For a conducive learning environment, it is essential for learners to be enabled, empowered and engaged (3E) in a learning organization. The 3E is mostly used in business organization for the efficient and effectiveness of employees' performance. Despite this, how learners involve in learning process through the 3E-management system might be relevant to discuss here.
Enabling Factor. According to Cambridge Dictionary, 'Enable' mean 'making something possible or easier'. Then, it is possible when people get access to the tools of powers and help to utilize their potential. Enabling factor concerns with the people to have access to resources, opportunity or authority to do something. In other words, funding and budget, human resource's capabilities and capacities for new technologies are enabling factors. Adler and Borys (1996) diagrammatically present the four types of organization culture (Organic, mechanistic, autocratic and high bureaucratic) which occur when there is practice of 'Degree of Formalization' at high or low in enabling or coercive environment. The practice of high degree of formalization in enabling environment tends to be highly bureaucratic organization, at low degree of formalization in enabling environment, it tends to be organic organization, at low degree of formalization in coercive environment, the organization tends to be autocratic, and at high degree of formalization in coercive environment, it tends to be mechanistic organization. Out of four types of organization culture, minimum practice of formalization with enabled environment is found effective. Alston and Tippett (2009) noted that the technology-based organizations which moved from mechanistic toward organic International Journal of African and Asian Studies www.iiste.org ISSN 2409-6938 An International Peer-reviewed Journal Vol.63, 2020 31 became more productive, successful, and high performing organizations (as cited in Jewczyn, 2010). In educational context, the practice of acts, regulation, curriculum and local provisions might determine the degree of formalization, likewise, the institution facilities and activities might determine the enabling or coercive environment. However, this is not empirically tested in the education organization.
Empowering Factor. Empowering refers to equip someone by powers that help to mobilize their skills and resources. Bonk and Ke Zang (2008) presents R2D2 (Read, Reflect, Display and Do) model that emphasizes to empower both e-learners and e-instructors. The model suggests e-learners to integrate various types of learning activities with appropriate technology. Likewise, Tohidi and Jabbari (2012) cite four types of empowerment: sense of competence, sense of being effective, sense of being valuable, autonomy, and Trust. Busara (2016) includes three types of empowerment in his study. They are training employees, creating a culture of allowing employees to give input and have control of their work, and giving employee access to information and providing feedback. So, there are various types of empowerment practices. However, the practice of empowering people tends to be engaged in their work that ultimately contributes to better organizational performance. In business organization, performance is mostly measured in terms of profit whereas in education organization, it is measured in terms of student learning achievement. The empowering people so far is strongly correlated to organizational performance (Busara, 2016).
Engaging Factor. Engaging is simply known as the employees or teachers, students' involvement in work/learning. They are involved in the learning process and it helps them become efficient and effective. There are various components of engagement in working activities. Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004) identified several components such as behavioral, emotional/psychological, cognitive, and academic engagement of students in learning) (as cited in Lee, 2014). Similarly, Lee (2014) assessed behavioral engagement and emotional engagement in learning that were revealed as significant predictor of reading performance. He further suggests the school managers, administrators and teachers to pay attention to students' engagement to enhance their learning.
The Speak Up National Research Project (2010) reports about the learning that is enabled, empowered and engaged to transform education where use of emerging technology is imperative. Besides creating engaging and enabling institutional environment, people's engagement is most essential component in learning process. The learning environment equipped with these three factors (3E) may enhance the adult education through any models or frameworks for adult education aforementioned. How these factors are essential? Do they contribute to implement generic models of adult learning? The following section illuminates a holistic model for adult learning that is proposed for adult education.

Process and Context Based (PCB) Model for Adult Learners
Many educationists or practitioners like Lee (2014), Tohidi and Jabbari (2012), Bonk and Ke Zang (2008), Fredricks et al. (2004), Adler and Borys (1996) and many others focus on the organizational/school environment for enhancing the performance (learning achievement). Their studies focused less on the process of learning or operational management. On other hand, Schon (1983), Foley (2004, Boud et al. (2005), Kolb (2015) and the other scholars focused on the process of learning rather than environment. However, both streams of scholars do not miss the discussion on the role of both process and environment of learning. They analogically describe the process of learning and the environment for learning one way or another.
The following figure 2, PCB model, is the summarized model for the adult learners that includes both process and environment. This model is a holistic in the sense that managers, administrators, educators, teachers and students need to involve for its effective implementation.
International Journal of African and Asian Studies www.iiste.org ISSN 2409-6938 An International Peer-reviewed Journal Vol.63, 2020

Figure 2. Process and Environment Based (PCB) Model for Adult Learners
Source: Concept cited from Kilb, 2015; Boud et al., 2005;Schon, 1983 and others In the figure 2 PCB model, the process in the circle that may be in spiral, includes three components: experience, action and reflection. Experience is mostly considered component of adult learners that may be starting point in new course of learning in the university. They experience from their job, social, cultural, economic or political activities before they join the the higher education institutions. In experiential learning, Kolb (2015) called it progressive learning that is one of the core concerns for adult learning. Highlighting the role of experience in adult learning, Henschke (2009)

says that
Andragogy as the place and process where adult learners (average age of 40) are involved in the learning process, and are encouraged to bring their considerable life and work experience into the discussions. Thus, adults often get better jobs, build their self-esteem and serve as role models to family and friends to their great benefit. Pearson and Smith (1994, chapter 4) state that in old age, experience is supposed to be the best teacher and still true for some extent. In their words, they experience in earlier stages through different sources, and that help them resolve the problems.
In the cycle, the next stage of learning is action a learner involves in their day-to-day life or in learning process. Schon (1984) states 'reflection-in-action' necessarily involves experiment which is process of learning. They use their experience during the course of action that can help to solve the problems. This event occurs in ongoing process of a learning activity. Fenwick and Tennant (2004) also contends that meaningful participation in everyday activity is the focus of learning and knowledge outcome (Pearson & Smith, 1994). In both stages: experience and action, learner's experience is accompanied.
The third stage of the cycle is reflection that involves both grasping and transformation of knowledge at higher level. This is another higher level of learning that is retrospective. Fenwick and Tennant (2004) state learning as reflection that is an active constructor of knowledge, creating new meanings and realities. Similarly, Pearson and Smith (1994) state people learn from reflection when they engage in an activity that may be part of on-the-job training, in-service education, work-experience and so on. They compare and contrast the present experience with past experience, and critically reflect on their action or practice that transforms at higher level of learning.
In the figure 2, three pillars: Enabling, Engaging and Engaging underpin the reflective cycle of learning process. In this concern, Knowles et al. (2015) contends that in advance, adult educators need to consider a set of elements for adult learning as follows: (1) Prepare the adult learner; (2) Manage a climate conducive to learning (richness and accessibility of resources-both material and human); (3) Create mechanism for collaborative planning; (4) Identify the needs for learning; (5) Set program objectives (6) Design a pattern of learning experiences; (7) Conduct these learning activities, (8) Evaluate the learning outcomes (p. 54) The above eight elements are almost concerned with enabling and empowering the adult learners that create learning environment by engaging them in learning process. Engagement i.e. practice based on reflection-in-action International Journal of African and Asian Studies www.iiste.org ISSN 2409-6938 An International Peer-reviewed Journal Vol.63, 2020 33 is useful to the learners, and for this, conducive environment is required (Schon, 1983). While framing andragogy, Crawford et al. (2018) highlights the importance for adult learning in a way that includes self-direction, contentfocused, instructor-learner coordination, loop learning, cyclical learning design and competency development. Reflecting on his highlights, learners need to be empowered by creating enabling environment. Because, adult learners want to be self-directed rather than to be instructed by instructors. This is possible through the meaningful learning context where double-loop learning occurs. In double-loop learning, In Crawford et al.'s (2018) words, learners proactively engage in learnings together with the avoidance of mistakes, and looks meaning-making from deeper understanding.
The different models or empirical studies highlight the importance for creative learning environment. The learning environment, basically, engage, enable and empower the learners. The Speak Up National Research Project (2010) suggests educators to engage, enable and empower students through the use of these emerging technologies. It suggests to enable student use of the emerging technologies, engage them in rich, and compelling learning experiences in the classroom, empower both teachers and students to creatively envision the future and to provide opportunities of a new shared vision for learning.

Conclusion
The literature reports that andragogy concerns with the teaching strategy for adult learners. Many studies have discussed from different perspectives of andragogy such as process, philosophy and context of adult education. In adult education, teachers have faced several problems due to the learners' dual characteristics whether they are adult or youth learners in Nepali higher education. However, they are interested in practical and immediate use of knowledge and skills. They are likely to be self-directed and self-controlled in the premises of learning where the teachers' role of facilitating student is important for adult education. Their learning is more affected by their sharing experience due to the diverse characteristics of the adult learners. The diverse characteristics might be source of synergistic learning. Different models for adult education basically reflect two facets of adult education: process and context. First facet includes experience, action and reflection, and the second, environmental factors: enabling, empowering and engagement. The proposed PCB model for adult learners includes both facets: process and context of adult learning. This model might be effective for adult learners by the active participation of all stakeholders of higher education institutions.