Evaluation of Governance Systems for Response and Recovery Measures During Flood Disaster in Niger State, Nigeria

Situated around the confluence of Niger and Benue Rivers, Niger State experiences annual flood episodes. The Niger, Benue and Gurara Rivers overspill their channels annually during the wet season thereby causing damages. If well planned, rescue and recovery processes should protect the lives and property of flood- prone areas, reduce vulnerability to flood hazards, safeguard the health of rescued people, promote social learning among affected persons by reoccurring floods and provide better understanding of the local economy to determine how different interventions may affect the local people. Against this backdrop, the study examined the rescue and recovery measures from Niger State flood disasters and the impacts of floods on the entire state. Specifically, the study seeks to identify formal and informal organizations involved in flood rescue and recovery measures during flood disasters in Niger state. This study was survey- based research and the data used for the study were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Two sets of questionnaire were used to obtain information. The first set centred on information concerning  households on their perception of  emergency institutional responses/ rescue operations during  flood disasters in the study area while the second set of questionnaire were administered on both public and private emergency management institutions and agencies. In all, a total of six hundred (600) copies of questionnaire were administered in the twenty five (25) local government Areas of Niger State but five hundred and eight (582) copies were successfully completed and retrieved from the respondents. Statistical techniques used for data analysis and testing of hypotheses include the student T- test, Analysis of variance (ANOVA), Factor analysis, principal component analysis and Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC). The computer programme employed for the PCA was statistical package for social sciences (SPSS), version 20 for window The result of data analysis revealed that the rescue and recovery operations have a mean and standard deviation (SD) of 1.59 + .492 indicating that the level of effectiveness in rescue and recovery measure during flooding were ineffective at 231(39.7%) The study recommends the critical need for synergy between public and NGO/CBOs emergency management operation, improve the effectiveness and efficiency of rescue operations, maximize the use of available resources during flooding and devote more resources to the medical needs and restoration of livelihood activities of residents to enhance early recovery of normal life. Keywords: Evaluation, Governance System, Response, Recovery, Flood Disaster, Niger State. DOI: 10.7176/JESD/11-22-11 Publication date: November 30 th 2020


Introduction
The number of people affected by climate related disaster is on the rise, particularly in low and middle-income countries where rapid urbanization is taking place (Adedeji, Odufuwa, Adebayo. 2012) and Umar, T. I. (2017). The trend in the frequency and intensity of disasters nationally and internationally is due to unpredictable climate changes, severe flooding, fire, drought, terrorism, epidemics and urbanization especially in developing countries Bell-Gam,(2000). With expected shifts in precipitation patterns, melting snow packs and glaciers, strong tropical cyclones, and a rising sea level, climate changes is becoming a risk multiplier for the poor and a core development challenge for developing and developed economies alike (Adedeji,2012). In response to this development, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (2007b) predicts that the heavy precipitation events, which are very likely to increase in frequency, will augment flood risks IPCC, (2007b).
Flood alone is a hazard but when it affects man and his properties or activities, it is called a disaster NEMA, (2012). Flood is a disaster because it results in: loss of lives, loss of agricultural products, loss of soil fertility for agriculture, and renders many homeless, destroys livestock and other valuable assets while causing

Sources: Researcher's field survey 2019
Objective of the study The study sought to achieve the following objective: 1. To identify formal and informal organisations involved in flood response and recovery measures during flood disasters in Niger state.

Research question
1. Which formal and informal organisations are involved in flood response and recovery measures during flood disaster in Niger state?

Conceptual Framework And Systematic Review Of Related Literature
For the purpose of this study, the concept that are directly related to response and recovery measures to flood disasters are emphasized. which include the theoretical framework for governance,

The Theoretical Framework for Governance
Numerous scholars have come up with definitions concerning the concept of governance. The unified interpretation seems to be, despite the multiple perspectives of the definitions, that as a term, governance refers to the political field and political activity as the vital task of every national government. At the outset, however, we would like to emphasize that the terms government and governance are not same. That is, government and governance are not synonymous terms, although both share goals-oriented objectives. Government occurs when those with legally and formally derived authority and policing power execute and implement activities; by contrast, governance refers to the creation, execution, and implementation of activities backed by the shared goals of citizens and organizations, who may or may not have formal authority or policing power (Ahem,Sari Kovats, Willkinso, Faw and Matthies 2010). According to Graham (2003), government is bureaucracy, legislation, financial control, regulation, and force. Governance, on the other hand, refers more like to a growing use of non regulatory policy instrument. This Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online) Vol.11, No.22, 2020 policy instrument aspect focuses the attention towards proposed, designed, and implemented cooperation by non state actors working together with state actors UNDP (2003). As a whole, governance is a growing phenomenon. The literature on governance is definitely considerable and expanding Aminuzzaman (2010). Back in history, in the fourteenth century for instance, the term governance referred to an action, method, or function of governing Halfani (1994). Landell et al. (2010), governance denotes how people are ruled, how the affairs of the states are administered and regulated, as well as a nation's system of politics, and how this functions in relation to public administration and law. According to Graham (2003), governance is seen as interaction among structures, processes, and traditions that determine how power and responsibilities are exercised, how decisions are taken, and how citizens and other stakeholders have their say. Therefore, governance is about power, relationship, and accountability: it addresses the questions like who has the influence, who makes the decisions, and how decision-makers are held accountable. Halfani (1994) and Umar, T. I. (2017) highlight governance as a system of government concentrating on effective and accountable institutions, democratic principles and electoral process, representation and responsible structures of government in order to ensure an open and legitimate relationship between the civil society and the state. They emphasized on the relationship between the civil society and the state, which is very crucial. This is in fact and an important notion since this differentiates the study of governance from the study of government. The nature of the relationship between the civil society and the state is the most important feature in their definition. They believe that credibility and legitimating of government can be achieved effectively and efficiently through decentralization and sharing, people's participation, accountability, transparency, and responsiveness.
In the same way, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD) (1995) definition of governance includes public administration and the institutions, methods and instruments of governing and also incorporates relationship between government and citizen (including business and other citizen groupings) and the role of the state. In order to cope with the challenges of the twenty-first century, to understand the relationship in-between the state and non state agencies is thus important. This is because of the economic globalization, massive corruption of state agencies, failure of centrally planned economy, elitist bureaucracy, remarkable breakthrough of information technology, and the rising role of the third sector, popularly known as the Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) across the developing world (e.g., Hossain 2001; Salomon and Anheier 1996; Anheier and Seibel 1990).
The UNDP (2002) further argues that good governance advances sustainable development for three reasons. Firstly, enjoying political freedom and participating in the decisions that shape one's life are fundamental human rights.
Secondly, it helps to protect people from economic and political catastrophes. And finally, because it can promote sustainable development by empowering citizens to influence policies that promote growth and prosperity and reflect their priorities Hope (2005). It needs to be pointed out from the above discussion that the notion of good governance is still developing in terms of its definition, its ethical connotations, and its usefulness Umar, T. I. (2017) In addition, critics suggest that the theory of good governance is often used as a tool -just as human rights and democracy -to gain advantage politically rather than to genuinely help the people. Umar, T. I. &Ihekwoaba, E.N.(2020) identified the deficiencies of the concept of good governance from two perspectives. For example, firstly, interaction of only three forces or elements are considered to constitute good governance -the interaction among the state, civil society, and the private sector. But the governance in developing countries is more influenced by global and regional forces rather than domestic forces. Secondly, the term "good governance" is heavily loaded by normative values -what is good and what is bad and for whom?as defined by global power politics. As a result, in order to meet and manage the challenges of globalization.
Umar, T. I.(2020) proposes the concept of "sound governance" in the place of "good governance." According to him (2020) sound governance means more than the term government and governing and good governance. Sound governance includes the state as an enabling institution, the constitutional framework, the civil society, the private sector, the engaged citizens, and the international/global institutional structure within limits. He further argues that it is "inclusive and promotes participation and interaction in an increasingly complex, diverse, and dynamic national and international environment Umar, T. I.(2020) Therefore, the meaning of good governance cannot be confined in a timeframe. Cultural heritage, traditional values, environmental realities, political culture, and economic structure have to be taken into account in defining and determining characteristics of good governance Umar, T. I. (2017). It is important to keep in mind that the condition of any development model may remain unrealized given the social economic, political, and cultural complexities of a particular society. The main challenges which arise from both the academic and aid agencies' models of governance is applicability in the cases of developing countries, where socio economic and political features are complex Haque (2011). Farazmand (2013) highlights that "local regional and cultural distinctiveness demands application of According to an Action Aid impact review, the agency's normal principles, such as participation and gender analysis, were considered difficult to integrate in an emergency in countries with less emergency experience. (Action Aid,2006). Following the Mozambique flood in 2000, the World Bank highlighted that consultation improved the nature of the interventions, but participation leading to empowerment was rare, mainly due to the lack of transparency and equity between negotiating bodies. Umar, T.I.& Ugwu, L. N.(2019If planned well, assessment and recovery processes should provide better understanding of the local economy to determine how different interventions may affect it. (Action Aid International,2006a). An evaluation in Wajir, Kenya after the drought and flood in 1996-1997 noted that relief distribution had stabilized food prices, thus shoring up pastoralists' purchasing power. But, for example, excessive cash distributions over a period of time may also affect the local economy negatively by causing inflation. (Action Aid International,2006b). Support to local market activity can broaden the base of livelihoods programmes and tap community resources for flood response, although such measures must be carefully designed. For example, markets are dynamic and must be monitored over time and space. According to the World Food Programme (WFP,2006), the livelihood of the local markers of clay roofing tile was severely affected when agencies distributed metal sheeting in the 2000 flood response in Bangladesh. (WFP,2006). Some agencies have therefore responded to flood disasters by including economists and market analysts on their staff . (WFP,2006).
Considering improvement of water system and sanitation, the literature shows that past relief and recovery operations have identified a range of approaches which include: incorporating mitigation measures during the rehabilitation of water, sanitation and health systems for future protection Umar, T. I. (2017) strengthening health volunteer networks to enhance their effectiveness in emergency preparedness and response Umar, T. I.(2017) raising tube-wells and boreholes above floodwater level to prevent contamination; including buckets and water containers in relief packages to reduce secondary contamination, planning sanitation and shelter together to ensure completion Umar, T. I. (2017) Attention to placement and arrangement of sanitary facilities to limit impact on ground water and ensure safety for community members; innovative approaches to sanitation in flooded areas, such as raised latrines, pit liners or rings, sealed pits or tanks, or contained leach fields Umar, T. I. (2017) ); and extending hygiene education to schools and to community groups. Umar, T. I.(2017) According to Umar, T. I.(2017) , public health and health care services required for preventing adverse health impacts from an extreme weather event include surveillance and control activities for infectious disease, access to safe water and improved sanitation, food security, maintenance of solid waste management and other critical infrastructure, maintenance of hospitals and other health care infrastructure, provision of mental health services, sufficient and safe shelter to prevent or mitigate displacement, and effective warning and informing systems. Umar, T. I.(2017) Strategies for post-flood housing programmes need to be based on the impact of flooding on houses and their long-term consequences, (ALNAP and Prevention, 2008a) rather than on the standard housing cycle concept (transitional to permanent housing).
The response needs to cover affected people's immediate survival needs up to the point at which durable solutions are reached. Quick provision of temporary shelter reduces exposure, can help to limit the outbreak of disease and allows people to move quickly out of community shelters, which may be needed for schooling or other community facilities. Reconstructing permanent housing in large-scale disasters may take a long time. In such cases, temporary or transitional shelter should have adequate facilities (for water, sanitation and cooking). Umar, T. I.(2017) and a system should be in place to monitor conditions of shelter. Umar, T. I.(2020) Preferences in housing vary by sex and age. An effective owner-driven approach means that key decisions are taken by the owners and that NGOs and the government support their decisions with resources and technical inputs Umar, T. I.(2020)

Research Methodology
Survey research design was adopted. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection were used. Collection of qualitative data was through oral interviews and non-participant observation, while quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaire and secondary sources such as books and journal articles. The oral interview targeted key senior member involving flood disaster management team. Interview was conducted based on questions drawn from prepared interview guide and recorded manually. The non-participant observation data were derived using observation schedule and photographic material during several visits made to the site. Due to the constraints, study avoided inclusion of residents and visitors to the scheme in the interview schedules for probable need to ascertained and confirm the observed data and inferences

Research Findings
Data presentation for the computation of formal and informal organizations involved in flood response and recovery measures during flood disasters in Niger state were also evaluated and interpreted. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) which measures the sampling adequacy (that is if the responses given with the sample are adequate or not) have a value of 0.644, which is higher than 0.5 and therefore can be accepted indicating that the sampling is adequate for the component analysis. Also, the result showed the Bartlett's test which is another indication of the strength of the relationship among variables. The Bartlett's Test of sphericity is with the value of .000 is significant as it is less than 0.05. In fact, it is actually showed that 0.000 is significantly small enough to reject the null hypothesis. This means that correlation matrix is not an identity matrix.
The communalities which also shows how much of the variance (i.e. the communality value which should be more than 0.5 to be considered for further analysis or else the variables are to be removed from further steps factor analysis) in the variables has been accounted for by the extracted factors indicated that 72. 9% Vol.11, No.22, 2020 /Association/Cooperatives/Religious bodies, Local/Niger state government including NIGSEMA and Federal government agencies/Security forces/ FEMA/International Organization is accounted for. The Eigen value which reflects the number of extracted factors whose sum should be equal to number of items subjected to factor analysis indicated that three factors or components and the cumulative percentage was 73.89%. This implies that the three factors explained 73.9% of the variance. The table 5.13above shows the loadings (extracted values of each item under 3 variables) of the eight variables on the three factors extracted. The higher the absolute value of the loading, the more the factor contributes to the variable (Three variables were extracted wherein the 5 items are divided into 3 variables according to most important items which similar responses in component 1 and simultaneously in component 2 and 3). The idea of rotation is to reduce the number factors on which the variables under investigation have high loadings. Looking at the table above, neighbours/family/friends, Local/Niger state government including NIGSEMA and Federal government agencies/Security forces/ FEMA/International Organization are substantially loaded on Factor (Component) 1, 2 and 3 respectively. All the remaining variables are substantially loaded on Factor.

Decision
Since the p-value = .000 from KMO and Bartlett's Test part of the output from table 5.13 (which is an identity matrix), reject the null hypotheses and accept the alternate hypotheses. Therefore, we conclude that neighbours/family/friends, Local/Niger state government including NIGSEMA and Federal government agencies/Security forces/ FEMA/International Organization are the formal and informal organizations involved in flood response and recovery measures during flood disasters in Niger state.

Evaluation of Activities Rendered By Friends, Family Members and Neighbours
Activities Involved by the neighbours, friends/families during flood disasters In Niger state were evaluated and interpreted. The KMO which measures the sampling adequacy (that is if the responses given with the sample are adequate or not) have a value of .707 which is higher than 0.5, it is therefore accepted, indicating that the sampling is adequate for the component analysis. Also, the result showed the Bartlett's test which is another indication of the strength of the relationship among variables. The Bartlett's Test of Sphericity with the value of .000 is significant as it is less than 0.05. It implies that actually 0.000 is significantly small enough to reject the null hypothesis. This means that correlation matrix is not an identity matrix. The communalities which also shows how much of the variance (i.e. the communality value which should be more than 0.5 to be considered for further analysis, otherwise the variables are to be removed from further steps factor analysis) in the variables has been accounted for by the extracted factors which indicated that 50.7%, 62.3%, 65.5%, 70.4%, 80.4%, 66.1%, 82.6% and 96.0% of the variance in shelter, food, medicine, psycho, employment, skill and transportation as well as resumption of normal life were accounted for respectively. The Eigen value which reflects the number of extracted factors whose sum should be equal to number of items subjected to factor analysis indicated that four factors or components were extracted and the cumulative percentage was 64.710%. This implies that the three factors explained 64.710% of the variance. The table 5.17below shows the loadings (extracted values of each item under 4 variables) of the nine variables on the four factors extracted. The higher the absolute value of the loading, the more the factor contributes to the variable (Four variables were extracted wherein the 9 items are divided into 4 variables according to most important items which similar responses in component 1 and simultaneously in component 2, 3 and 4). The idea of rotation is to reduce the number factors on which the variables under investigation have high loadings. Looking at the table5.17 shelter, food, medicines, psycho-social support, employment, skill and resumption of normal life are substantially loaded on Factor (Component). This indicates the activities that neighbours were actively involved. All the remaining variables are substantially loaded on Factor.
Therefore, it is concluded that neighbours/family/friends, were actively involved in the provision of shelter, food, medicines, psycho-social support, employment, skill and resumption of normal life in flood response and recovery measures during flood disasters in Niger state.  Vol.11, No.22, 2020 Vol.11, No.22, 2020

Recommendation/Conclusion
The recommendations are divided into two 'policy and practical recommendations'. On the account of policy recommendations, the need to protect the immediate environment, the human population and livelihoods from recurrence of unmitigated flood disasters should be embedded in a program of actions adopted by the government at all levels as well as NGOs. To lessen the effect and impact of flood on the lives and property of the state's citizenry and the nation in general, policy makers need to shift resources and policy actions towards proactive measures on emergency/disaster reduction with two of the cardinal tools of emergency management: namely preparedness and mitigation. It is apparent that recovery measures would not restore the lives and properties lost during flood disasters. In fact, any attempt toward recovery would only be achieved by using resource that could have been used for further development if the disaster had been prevented or prepared for. With additional investments in flood disaster management, significant improvements in disaster and response are achievable. While the following recommendation have been made before, little has been done to implement them, thus they are worth repeating.
There is need to establish a multi-disciplinary national centre and regional chapters to focus on vulnerability. Efforts that will help develop and improve the data, methods, and models for understanding flood vulnerability and more importantly, developing tools and strategies for improving nation's resiliency to future flood occurrences. The planning and preparedness includes the period before a disaster. Activities should also include the development of plans and participation in local, regional or state-wide training exercises. Flood disaster plans need to include the role of the hospital or health centre as a survivor and as a responder. Plans need to address internal lines of authority and action. This also includes provision of appropriate training for staff and at least an annual update or revision of flood disaster plans and a comprehensive review of the plan with all staff.
Secondly, the research suggests provision of tool-box of data and procedures for local communities to reduce the preparedness divide and also create a more uniform baseline across the Nation especially with placebased flood vulnerability assessments. Similar to this, there is need to increase governments support of rapid response research to secure critical social science and geo-spatial data and information in disasters.
Finally on the aspect of policy recommendations, as a nation, we need to understand the human decision and organizational failures that contributed to the flood disaster that affected twenty-Seven (27) states in 2017 including Niger state so that it won't happen again. There is immediate need for a dependent review of the local, state and federal response to flood events so that we can learn the lessons of what went right and what went wrong in the response and use these to improve our preparedness and responses to future disasters.
The second set of recommendations is the practical-oriented rather than policy-oriented. Firstly the issue of public enlightenment and awareness need to be extended in practical sense. The state owned radio station in Niger state and the National Television Authority (NTA) have been sensitizing the people on the danger of dumping refuse inside the rivers. The jingle played in English, pidgin and local dialects always ends in prayer that God will spare the people from another disaster trauma again. There is need to improve on this strategy.
Another area of practical recommendation is management of drains. Efforts should be made on a long-term basis, to completely characterized Kuchi River just as the Shiroro River is at present. On a short term basis, however, all the major rivers and streams in the study area should be dredged and channel on a periodic basis. If possible, this should be done every year, preferably in march / April at the beginning of the rainy.