Washback Effect of High-Stakes English Language Tests on the Learning Behaviours of Ghanaian ESL Learners

The term washback or backwash is used in Applied Linguistics to refer to the impact of second/foreign language testing on learning behaviours, teaching practices, and curriculum design. The Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE) and the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) English language tests administered by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) are high-stakes tests which have very important consequences for the junior and senior high school leavers. The English language syllabus for both junior high school and senior high school levels has listening, reading, writing, and speaking components. Unfortunately, the BECE and WASSCE English language tests do not assess students on all the language skills. Although the WASSCE English language test has oral English component (which was introduced in 1999), it assesses candidates on listening comprehension only. Since teachers and students are likely to concentrate on what is going to be assessed, there may be negative washback effect on teaching and learning of English language in junior and senior high schools in Ghana. This paper reports on the washback effect of high-stakes English language tests on the learning behaviours of Ghanaian ESL learners. A total of 344 students from 3 junior high and 5 senior high schools were purposively sampled for the study. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of data revealed that the BECE/WASSCE influenced how students learnt English, and that they wanted their teachers to concentrate on language areas that would only make them perform well in the high-stakes tests. This confirms the Alderson and Wall’s washback hypotheses that a test will influence what and how learners learn. DOI: 10.7176/JEP/12-30-10 Publication date:October 31 2021 1.0 Washback: What is it? According to Alderson & Wall (1993), washback or backwash refers to the influence of testing on teaching and learning. Popham (1987) uses the term measurement-driven instruction to refer to the notion that testing influences teaching and learning. This idea that examinations tend to have some impact, directly or indirectly, on the curriculum or teaching and learning is not new in Applied Linguistics and Education (Alderson 1986, Pearson 1988, Hughes 1989, Khaniya 1990). Although the operation of testing is distinct from teaching, testing tends to have impact on teaching and learning. According to Pearson (1988), public examinations influence the attitudes, behaviour, and motivation of teachers, learners, and parents. What is assessed always becomes what is valued, which becomes what is taught (McEwen 1995:42). Examinations can be used as a means of promoting curriculum change, as teachers tend to ignore subject areas and activities that do not contribute directly to passing examinations. Examinations therefore have the tendency of distorting the curriculum (Vernon 1956), thereby bringing about negative washback. Current research on the impact of examinations on the curriculum focuses on positive washback. This is because it is hoped that proper or well-designed language tests can go a long way to improve the quality of classroom teaching and learning. Although the washback phenomenon was acknowledged before 1993, (Alderson 1986, Pearson 1988, Hughes 1989, Khaniya 1990), not much attention was paid to identifying the nature of washback until Alderson and Wall (1993). They investigated the effect of the introduction of new tests in Sri Lanka on the teaching of English as a foreign language by secondary school teachers, and posited the following possible washback hypotheses: 1) A test will influence teaching 2) A test will influence learning 3) A test will influence what teachers teach 4) A test will influence how teachers teach 5) A test will influence what learners learn 6) A test will influence how learners learn 7) A test will influence the rate and sequence of teaching 8) A test will influence the rate and sequence of learning 9) A test will influence the degree and depth of teaching 10) A test will influence the degree and depth of learning 11) A test will influence attitudes to content, method, etc. of teaching/learning 12) Tests that have important consequences will have washback 13) Tests that do not have important consequences will have no washback 14) Tests will have washback on all learners and teachers Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)


Washback: What is it?
According to Alderson & Wall (1993), washback or backwash refers to the influence of testing on teaching and learning. Popham (1987) uses the term measurement-driven instruction to refer to the notion that testing influences teaching and learning. This idea that examinations tend to have some impact, directly or indirectly, on the curriculum or teaching and learning is not new in Applied Linguistics and Education (Alderson 1986, Pearson 1988, Hughes 1989, Khaniya 1990. Although the operation of testing is distinct from teaching, testing tends to have impact on teaching and learning. According to Pearson (1988), public examinations influence the attitudes, behaviour, and motivation of teachers, learners, and parents. What is assessed always becomes what is valued, which becomes what is taught (McEwen 1995:42). Examinations can be used as a means of promoting curriculum change, as teachers tend to ignore subject areas and activities that do not contribute directly to passing examinations. Examinations therefore have the tendency of distorting the curriculum (Vernon 1956), thereby bringing about negative washback. Current research on the impact of examinations on the curriculum focuses on positive washback. This is because it is hoped that proper or well-designed language tests can go a long way to improve the quality of classroom teaching and learning.
Although the washback phenomenon was acknowledged before 1993, (Alderson 1986, Pearson 1988, Hughes 1989, Khaniya 1990, not much attention was paid to identifying the nature of washback until Alderson and Wall (1993). They investigated the effect of the introduction of new tests in Sri Lanka on the teaching of English as a foreign language by secondary school teachers, and posited the following possible washback hypotheses: 1) A test will influence teaching 2) A test will influence learning 3) A test will influence what teachers teach 4) A test will influence how teachers teach 5) A test will influence what learners learn 6) A test will influence how learners learn 7) A test will influence the rate and sequence of teaching 8) A test will influence the rate and sequence of learning 9) A test will influence the degree and depth of teaching 10) A test will influence the degree and depth of learning 11) A test will influence attitudes to content, method, etc. of teaching/learning 12) Tests that have important consequences will have washback 13) Tests that do not have important consequences will have no washback 14) Tests will have washback on all learners and teachers Integrated Science Mathematics Basic Design and Technology Information and Communication Technology French (optional) Religious and Moral Education The WASSCE is administered to school candidates in the third year of their West African Senior School courses and to private candidates. The examination is meant for both selection to tertiary institutions and for certification. It is conducted in May and June (for school candidates) and October and November (for private candidates) each year. Candidates for any of the programmes (Agriculture, Business, Technical, Vocational, Arts, and Science) are required to take the following core subjects: English Language Integrated Science Mathematics (Core) Social Studies

The WAEC English Language Test and Washback
Languages are usually taught and assessed in terms of the four basic skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Ideally, the BECE/WASSCE should be able to test students on all these language skills, as specified in the official English language curriculum. According to Powers (2010), it is important to test for each of these four skills individually because each is a critical aspect of communicative competence. Unfortunately, not all of them are covered in the BECE/WASSCE. The English language syllabus (for both BECE and WASSCE) issued by the Curriculum Research and Development Division (CRDD) of the Ministry of Education is designed to assist students to: develop the language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. generate in students the love for reading for pleasure and the development of creative potentials. improve the communicative competence of students and give them the confidence to communicate. enable students to communicate effectively through the speaking and writing of English. The study of English at both junior and senior high levels comprises Language and Literature. The Language component is an integration of both the receptive (listening and reading) and productive (speaking and writing) skills in English. Learners use the receptive skills (listening and reading) to receive information (for knowledge and understanding). The productive skills (speaking and writing), on other hand, are used to give information (for use of knowledge). Knowledge and Understanding refers to the ability to identify and recall which is done through listening and reading. Use of Knowledge implies the ability to use the language in writing and in speaking. These two profile dimensions (Knowledge and Understanding and Use of Knowledge) and the four language skills have been specified for teaching, learning and testing in the English language syllabus as shown in Table 1 below:

Source: Curriculum Research and Development Division (2012), page viii
The English language syllabus for the BECE requires that 10% of teaching, learning, and testing should be devoted to listening skills, and 30% should be given to each of the other three language skills (reading, speaking, and writing skills). That of the WASSCE requires that 5% should be devoted to listening skills, 35% to reading skills, 30% to speaking skills, and 30% to writing skills. The last but one row, shows the marks allocated to each of the four skills. Only 5% is allocated to listening skills at the senior high school level because it is expected that students would have acquired a lot of the skills in listening to spoken English. If the content or focus of the BECE or WASSCE is different from these requirements of the English language syllabus, teachers and learners can adjust their behaviour in order to meet the demands of the examination.
Several high-stakes standardized tests have received some treatment in the washback studies. Shohamy, et al. (1996) examined the impact of national tests of Arabic as a Second Language (ASL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Israel. They found out that washback changes over time because of factors including language status and test uses. Alderson & Hamp-Lyons (1996) also investigated the influence of Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) on classroom teaching. According to Alderson & Hamp-Lyons (1996) TOEFL affects both what and how teachers teach, but the effect varies with teachers. Cheng (1999) investigated the possible washback effects from the 1994 revised Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination in English (HKCEE) on teachers and students in Hong Kong secondary schools. It was found out that the change on teaching content rather than methodology was attributed to inadequate training and qualifications of secondary English teachers. Green (2007) investigated whether test preparation classes were advantageous in assisting students trying to improve their International English Language Testing System (IELTS) writing scores. He concluded that test preparation classes had no apparent benefit to improve test scores. Shih (2007) also explored the effects of General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) exit requirements on learning, and concluded that the current washback theory didn't account for GEPT washback.
In Ghana, some attempts have been made to investigate the effects of assessment on teaching and learning. For instance, Oduro-Okyireh & Narh-Kwao (2014) look at the extent to which assessment in general promotes effective teaching and also influences classroom learning in the Ashanti Mampong Municipality of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. According to the study, teachers' classroom assessments improve learning. Nothing is said about whether or not the teachers focus their attention on preparing the students for the assessment. Agbeti (2011) considers the influence of external assessment on teaching and learning in junior high schools in Ghana. He concludes that the examination influences what teachers teach and how they teach it and the teachers' self-worth, prestige and public esteem depend on the performance of their students in the examination.
Unlike Oduro-Okyireh & Narh-Kwao (2014) and Agbeti (2011), who focus their attention on the effects of assessment in general on teaching and learning, Ofori-Bekoe (2006) evaluates the impact of the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSSCE) on the Social Studies curriculum as a whole, with specific reference to teachers' classroom practices, curriculum content, its implementation and students' attainment. He concludes that the SSSCE does not adequately cover all the goals and objectives of Social Studies in Ghana and that it has a constraining impact on teachers' classroom practices.
An examination of the related literature shows that some studies have been conducted on the effects of assessment (in general) on stakeholders in education and on teaching and learning in Ghana. However, washback effect of external examinations on teaching and learning of English language in Ghana has received virtually no attention. It is for this reason that this study (which may be the first of its kind in Ghana) has been undertaken.

Methodology
The study employs the use of questionnaires and interviews. A questionnaire was employed to collect data from 344 students who were being prepared for BECE or WASSCE. The questionnaire for students, which was simplified and reduced to their level of understanding, was made up of 20 close-ended and 8 open-ended items. The questionnaire was piloted with 120 students from Morning Star School in Accra, Uncle Rich School at Winneba, Adisadel College in Cape Coast, and Saint Augustine's College in Cape Coast to find out whether the items were valid. The items were found to be comprehensive enough to collect all the information needed to address the research question: How does the BECE/WASSCE English language test influence the learning behaviours of students?
A total of 344 students from 3 junior high and 5 senior high schools were purposively sampled for the study. All the available senior high school students were second year students. On the other hand, the junior high students were made up of 77 second year students and 116 final year students. Table 2 below shows the schools that were sampled for the study. JHS 2 In addition to this number, 30 students (5 final year students from each of the schools) were interviewed to gather additional data on the attitudes of students towards language areas or skills that are not examined. It was hypothesised that students would not give the required attention to language areas or skills that are not covered in the BECE/WASSCE and that their attitudes would not be influenced by their class levels.

Data Analysis and Presentation 1.8.1 The Language Areas Students Expect Teachers to Focus on
This section analyses the views of students on whether or not they want their teachers to teach them only language areas or skills that would make them perform well at the BECE/WASSCE. Table 3 and Fig 1 below show the summary of the students' responses to the questionnaire item 1 (Our teachers should teach language areas that will only make us perform well at the BECE/WASSCE). 136 and 198 of the students agree and strongly agree respectively with the statement. This means that they want their teachers to concentrate on language areas that will only make them perform well in their final examinations.  Table 4 below shows the Chi-Square Tests. The df (degree of freedom) and the Value of 6 and 14.049 a respectively mean that there is no significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies. The result confirms the null hypothesis that the students would like their teachers to teach language areas that are covered in the BECE/WASSCE. The analyses of the students' responses to questionnaire item 1 Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol.12, No.30, 2021 showed that the students agreed that their teachers should teach them language areas that would only make them perform well at the BECE/WASSCE. They therefore wanted their teachers to concentrate on language areas or skills that would only make them perform well at the final examinations.  Table 5 also shows the analysis of the students' responses to the questionnaire item 1in respect of percentage, mean, and standard deviation. The standard deviation of .494 for BECE shows that the responses of JHS students did not differ much from one another. The BECE candidates were almost saying the same thing. They wanted their teachers to teach them examinable areas. On the other hand, the standard deviation of .737 for WASSCE shows that the views of the SHS students differed slightly from one another compared with that of the JHS students. 4% of the SHS students disagreed with the statement while 2.2% were undecided. Again the mean of 4.59 and 4.46 for BECE and WASSCE respectively shows that the BECE candidates tended to put more pressure on their teachers to concentrate on examinable areas than the WASSCE candidates.

The Impact of the BECE/WASSCE English Language Test on how Students Learn English
According to Alderson & Wall, (1993) a test will influence how learners learn. That is, a test will influence the way or manner learners learn; learners may not be able to learn in a relaxed manner because of the test. It is this tension that causes learners to develop negative attitudes towards high-stakes tests. This section analyses the views of students on how they will learn English if there is no BECE/WASSCE. Table 6 and Fig 2 below show the analysis of students' views on questionnaire item 3. (If there is no BECE/WASSCE, how I learn will be different).
The results show that the BECE/WASSCE influences how students learn English. None of the students disagreed with the statement and 5 were undecided. 174 and 165 agreed and strongly disagreed respectively with the statement. Table 7 shows the Chi-Square Tests of the students' views on how the BECE/WASSCE influences how they learn English. The Pearson Chi-Square value of 4.778 a means that expected frequencies are not different from the observed frequencies.  Further analysis of students' views on how the BECE/WASSCE influences how students learn English is presented in Table 8 below. None of the students disagreed with the statement. 0.5% and 2.6% of BECE and WASSCE candidates respectively were undecided. The analysis shows that both BECE and WASSCE influenced how the students learned English. However, the mean of 4.48 and standard deviation of .552 for WASSCE are slightly higher than that of BECE with the mean of 4.45 and standard deviation of 509. It can therefore be concluded that when it comes to how students learn English, there is not much difference between the JHS students and the SHS students in the study. This section analyses the views of students on the kind of attention given to language areas or skills that are not examined in the BECE/WASSCE. Table 9 below shows the summary of students' responses to the questionnaire item 5. (Students should focus their attention on language areas that are examined in the BECE/WASSCE.) None of the students disagreed with the statement. 180 and 144 agreed and strongly agreed respectively with the statement, while 20 were undecided. The graphical presentation of the summary of the views of the students is shown in Fig 3 below. The analysis of the views of the students shows that the students would like to focus their attention on language areas that are examined in the BECE/WASSCE. Although 20 students were undecided, the results of Chi-Square Tests (Value: 23.750 a ; df: 4), as shown in Table 10, indicate that the expected frequencies are not too different from the observed frequencies. Although both JHS and SHS students focused their attention on language skills and areas that are covered in the BECE/WASSCE, the results as shown in Table 11 indicate that the BECE candidates focused their attention on the examinable areas more than the WASSCE candidates. The Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol.12, No.30, 2021 mean and the standard deviation of 4.44 and .508 respectively for BECE are higher than that of the WASSCE with the mean and the standard deviation of 4.26 and .668 respectively.

Skipping Language Areas that are not Examined in the BECE/WASSCE
It is said that when there is a mismatch between the stated goals of the curriculum and the focus of examination, teachers and students abandon curriculum goals in favour of examination (Bailey, 1996). This section analyses the views of students on whether or not their teachers should skip language areas or skills that are not covered in the BECE/WASSCE. Table 12 and Fig 4 below show the summary of students' responses to the questionnaire item 6 (Our English teachers should skip language areas that are not examined in the BECE/WASSCE). Only 1 out of the 344 students disagreed with the statement while 19 were undecided. 135 and 189 agreed and strongly agreed respectively with the statement. This means that the students agreed that their teachers should skip language areas or skills that are not examined in the BECE/WASSCE. The results were further subjected to Chi-Square test (as shown in Table 13) to find out whether the null hypothesis is true. The Chi-Square value of 9.019 a and the df of 6 means that the null hypothesis is true in this case. Table 14 below shows the comparison of the results between the BECE candidates and the WASSCE candidates. The WASSCE candidates, with the mean and standard deviation of 4.52 and .564 respectively, expressed a stronger desire to skip language areas that are not examined than the BECE candidates with the mean and standard deviation of 4.46 and .653 respectively.    Wrenn and Wrenn, (2009), educators desire their students not only to learn theory and understand why theories are important but also to learn how to apply what is learnt in the classroom to practical problems. This section reports on views of students on whether their teachers set questions that demand application of what is learnt in the classroom to practical problems or questions that would only prepare the students to perform well in the BECE/WASSCE. Table 15 and Fig 5 show the analysis of the questionnaire item 7 (Our English teachers always set questions that ask us to apply what we learn to practical problems). The results show that teachers do not ask students to apply what they learn to practical problems; rather teaching, learning, and testing are directed towards the BECE/WASSCE. 72 of the students were uncertain while 112 and 160 strongly disagreed and disagreed respectively with the statement. Table 16 also shows the Chi-Square test results of students' views on whether or not teachers set questions that demand application of what they learn to practical problems. The Chi-Square value of 12.577 a and the df of 4 show that the null hypothesis is true in this case. It can therefore be concluded that teachers do not set questions that demand application of what is learnt in the classroom to practical problems. However, the mean result of 1.97 and 1.77 for BECE and WASSCE respectively (as shown in Table 17) indicates that BECE questions are closer to solving practical problems than the WASSCE in the study.

The Use of Past Exam Papers in Teaching and Learning of English
The importance of past exam papers in effective revision for exams cannot be overemphasised. Ideally students are expected to consult past exam papers after they have successfully gone through the syllabus. However, high stakes tests have the tendency of putting pressure on students to concentrate on solving past exam papers, rather than concentrating on completing the syllabus. This section analyses views of students on the teachers' use of past exam papers in teaching. Table 18 and Fig 6 show the analysis of the questionnaire item 9 (Our teachers should use BECE/WASSCE past questions in their teaching). Only 1 of the students disagreed with the statement while 3 were undecided. 121 and 219 agreed and strongly agreed respectively with the statement. The results show that the students wanted their teachers to teach with past exam papers instead of syllabus. This implies that concentrating on completing the syllabus would be considered as a waste of students' time. The study further subjected the views of the students analysed in Table 18 and Fig 6 to Chi-Square test to find out whether the null hypothesis is true in this case. The Chi-Square results (as shown in  Vol.12, No.30, 2021 teachers to teach with past questions. However, the mean and the standard deviation of 4.67 and .524 respectively for BECE are higher than that of the WASSCE with the mean and the standard deviation of 4.56 and .511 respectively, as indicated in Table 20 below. What this means is that the JHS students expressed a stronger desire for their teachers to teach with past questions than their SHS counterparts.

Students' Preference for Teachers who are WAEC Examiners
Being an examiner and teacher affords one a deeper understanding of what is required of their students in the examination room. However, being an examiner would not necessarily make one a good teacher. It is said that a good teacher is the one that instils love of learning in their students and not the one who prepares students just to pass an examination. This section reports on the views of students on their preference for teachers who are examiners. The section analyses students' responses to the questionnaire item 11 (I would like my teacher to be an examiner for WAEC). As indicated in Table 21 and Fig 7, only 1 student disagreed with the statement while 7 were undecided. 101 and 235 agreed and strongly agreed respectively with the statement. This means that the students wanted their teachers to be WAEC examiners. The results were further subjected to Chi-Square test as shown in Table 22. Chi-Square value of 6.763 a and df of 6 mean that the null hypothesis is true. Table 23 also shows the mean and the standard deviation application to the results. The results show the mean and standard deviation of 4.67 and .524 respectively for BECE and 4.64 and .546 respectively for WASSCE. What this means is that the JHS students expressed a stronger preference for teachers who are examiners than their SHS counterparts.

Students' Desire to be Coached to Answer BECE/WASSCE Questions
It was found out in 1.8.7 above that the students in this study wanted their teachers to be WAEC examiners. Perhaps the students wanted their teachers to be WAEC examiners so that they can be given special instructions on how to answer examination questions appropriately. This section analyses the views of students on their desire to be coached to answer BECE/WASSCE questions. The section analyses the students' responses to the questionnaire item 12 (I think that our teachers should coach us to answer BECE/WASSCE questions). As shown in Table 24 and Fig 8, only 3 out of the 344 students disagreed with the statement while 5 were undecided. 84 and 252 agreed and strongly agreed respectively with the statement. This means that the students wanted their teachers to coach them to answer BECE/WASSCE questions. Table 25 also shows the Chi-Square test of the results shown in Table  24 and Fig 8 to find out whether the null hypothesis is true. The Chi-Square value of 12.009 a and the df of 6 mean that there is no significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies. This means that the null hypothesis is true. Table 26 shows the comparison between the views of BECE candidates and that of WASSCE candidates. The standard deviation of .447 and .640 for BECE and WASSCE respectively suggests that the views of the BECE candidates did not significantly differ, as compared to that of the WASSCE candidates. Again, the mean of 4.73 and 4.67 for BECE and WASSCE respectively suggests that the BECE candidates expressed a stronger desire to be coached to answer BECE questions than the WASSCE candidates.    Spratt, (2005) examinations generate an atmosphere of high anxiety and fear of test results among both teachers and students. It is this examination anxiety that sometimes leads to negative washback effect. This section analyses the views of students on how the BECE/WASSCE creates anxiety in them. The section analyses the students' responses to the questionnaire item 13 (I am always anxious about the BECE/WASSCE). As shown in Table 27 and Fig 9, only 2 and 9 students strongly disagreed and disagreed respectively with the statement while 15 were undecided. 169 and 149 agreed and strongly agreed respectively with the statement. This implies that the students were always anxious about the BECE/WASSCE. Table 28 also shows the Chi-Square test analysis of the results presented in Table 41 and Fig 10. The Chi-Square value of 16.744 a and the df of 8 means that the null hypothesis is true in this case. The mean and the standard deviation results are shown in Table 29 below. The mean of 4.40 and 4.21 for BECE and WASSCE respectively shows that the BECE creates a higher level of anxiety in students than the WASSCE. Again, the standard deviation of .570 and .884 for BECE and WASSCE respectively implies that the views of WASSCE candidates differed more significantly than that of the BECE candidates.

Table29: Summary of Students' Responses to Questionnaire Item 13
Results from Interviews Similar results on students' attitudes towards language skills/areas that are not covered in the final examinations were obtained from the students' responses to interviews as shown in Table 30 below. With the exception of Interviewees 6,8,9,and 11 who seemed to be saying that the WASSCE had positive effect on their learning, the rest (87%) of the Interviewees indicated that the WASSCE influenced them negatively. A majority (87%) of the interviewees seemed to be indicating that the WASSCE did not adequately test skills that could prepare them for life, and that the examination was too theoretical. The students therefore tended to concentrate on examinable areas by relying heavily on past questions in their studies. For instance, Interviewee 24 said that his learning of English was geared towards passing examination. Many of the students therefore learnt with question-and-answer booklets.  Vol.12, No.30, 2021  Interviewee 9: Some students may think that they are learning English because of the WASSCE, but in the end what they learn because of the exam will help them to use English properly.
Interviewee 10: Since not all the language areas are examined, students are compelled to concentrate on examinable areas in order to get good grades.
Interviewee 11: WASSCE has no influence on the way I learn English.
Interviewee 12: WASSCE restricts students to certain areas in English language.
Interviewee 13: I learn English in a way that will help me to pass the WASSCE. Interviewee 29: WASSCE restricts me from reading wide outside the syllabus.
Interviewee 30: WASSCE does not allow students to learn English for life. Even the oral English aspect does not allow students to speak the language, we only listen and shade.

Conclusion
The study made use of the data gathered through questionnaires and interviews to provide answers to the question:

What are the attitudes of learners towards language skills or areas that are not covered in the BECE/WASSCE?
The areas explored were the following: The language areas students expected their teachers to focus on How the BECE/WASSCE influenced how students learn English Language skills or areas that attracted students' attention The use of past exam papers in teaching and learning of English Students' preference for teachers who were WAEC examiners Students' desire to be coached to answer BECE/WASSCE questions Students' anxiety about the BECE/WASSCE The analysis of the students' questionnaire and interview showed that both JHS students and SHS students wanted their teachers to concentrate on language areas that would only make them perform well in their final examinations. However, the JHS students and BECE candidates tended to put more pressure on their teachers to concentrate on examinable areas than the WASSCE candidates. This means that the BECE exerted a greater negative washback effect on the students than the WASSCE. This might be attributed to the criterion used in the selection of JHS leavers into SHS. It is not only the grades of the candidates that are considered for selection into senior high schools. Selection of JHS leavers into SHS is also based on the raw scores of candidates. Grade 1 is between 80% and 100%. Two candidates, A and B with the average scores of 82% and 98% respectively have both got grade 1, but the candidate B could be considered first for a grade A school or for their first choice school. This makes the competition in the JHS keener than that of the SHS.
The study again revealed that although both the BECE and the WASSCE created some anxiety in students, the BECE created a higher level of anxiety in students than the WASSCE. This is because, unlike the selection into second cycle institutions which is based on candidates' raw scores, the selection into tertiary institutions and programmes is only based on students' grades. For this reason: i. The BECE candidates tended to put more pressure on their teachers to concentrate on examinable areas than the WASSCE candidates. ii.
The BECE candidates focused their attention on the examinable areas more than the WASSCE candidates. iii.
The JHS students expressed a stronger desire for their teachers to teach with past questions than their SHS counterparts. iv.
The JHS students expressed a stronger preference for teachers who were examiners than their SHS Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol.12, No.30, 2021 counterparts. v.
The BECE candidates expressed a stronger desire to be coached to answer BECE questions than the WASSCE candidates. In effect, the BECE tended to exert a greater negative washback effect on the students than the WASSCE in the study. Although this comparison of washback effect of the BECE and the WASSCE English language test on JHS students and SHS students respectively was not the focus of the study, it became necessary because the present washback study considered the two high-stakes examinations. An examination of the related literature showed that many of the washback studies examined the impact of only one high-stakes examination on teaching and learning at a time. The current study is among the few washback studies that focus on two high-stakes examinations.
The findings revealed that both BECE and WASSCE English language tests exerted negative influence on the students' learning, and that very little attention was given to language areas or skills that were not covered in BECE and WASSCE. The BECE/WASSCE English language test had detrimental effects on students' communicative competence. This is because there was a mismatch between the content of the syllabus and the focus of the BECE/WASSCE English language test. The study again revealed that there was not much difference between the JHS students and the SHS students on how they learnt English. Both examinations influenced how students learnt English. This confirms the Alderson and Wall's washback hypotheses that a test will influence what and how learners learn.
In order to bring about a positive washback effect, WAEC should make every endeavour to assess students on all the language skills at all levels, namely: listening skills, reading skills, writing skills, and reading skills. Until this is done, teachers of English and their students will continue to concentrate on only examinable areas.